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No 2, 2021 En este n=C3=BAmero art=C3=ADculos de: </p= >Mar=C3=ADa Helena Car= bonell; Hugo Wood; Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez; Carlos E. W= effe; Corte Suprema de Justicia, Magistrado Ponente Oyd=C3= =A9n Ortega Dur=C3=A1n; Gianfranco Smith = ;<img src=3D"data:ima= ge/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIf= AhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAIABJREFUeJzs3WuMpNl5H/b/ed+q6vt0T8/9vju7= O1zuMuJFpERKpCUrQXSNJRuSZScOHNlIAtj+lgCGECAIHANBADtIkMBSYkSBA0UQHMWxHMdy7ES= 2LpRJihLv5JLLvc7Mzr17+t5dl/fkQ/UMlytKThByZhX9fpjqqnq7qvqd+lD41znneU4CAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMAfYuVxnwDw/2+11nNJnkrSfHNecZx= xxg9uppck6U2P9d78uN70AXnLsbceOjzc+/on/3+1k+QLpZTdb+aLAjzwTf3EAniryWTyr7dt+x= 8nmf3mvGIvTUpSk9I8+A5a0qZNurc8tLRfu10Pr5okpUwPHF6l5pv9dfbLSf79w2uAbzoBDviWK= qXM11pPl1K+KQGu1ppa2tTU6ZBeffCHktT6MJM9uP+1Ow9PKElNrQ+OfvMnImqt90ajUf+b/sIA= hwQ44A+NWqfDZXU8Sts2qekyHu2n12uS1OzvbWd3ZyuTOk4pX0t2TWkzmJnLwvxCavopvUFqV1N= 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABmAlNrkLPAeZATAAAAAElFTkSuQ= mCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>Iustitia et Pulchritudo Revista Especializada en Ciencias Jur=C3=ADdicas, Forenses y Pol=C3= =ADticas de la Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADti= cas de la Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua = (USMA) ISSN 1607-4319 Segunda =C3=89poca; Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero 2 (= Julio-Diciembre de 2021) Publicaci=C3=B3n semestral </span= >_____________________________________= _________________________________________ Consejo Cient=C3=ADf= ico: Prof. Jorge Kam (Vicerre= ctor Acad=C3=A9mico, Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt= "> Antigua= ), Prof. Ana Matilde G=C3=B3mez R. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= (Decana, Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas, </= span>Universidad Cat= =C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua), Dr. = Carlos Guevara Mann (Director, Programa de= M.Sc. en Rel. Intern., Florida State University), <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:1= 1pt">Dr. Rigoberto Gonzalez (Procurador Ge= neral de la Administraci=C3=B3n, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1), <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:normal"> Dra. Nelva Ara=C3=BAz, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= (Investigadora, Centro Internacional de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Sociales)= , = Dra. Carla Pousa (Profesora, Florida State University), <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:1= 1pt; letter-spacing:normal">Prof. Salvador S=C3=A1nchez (Directo= r, Instituto de Estudios Democr=C3=A1ticos del Tribunal Electoral), = Dra. Idania Perigault (Jefa del Departament= o de =C3=89tica y Gesti=C3=B3n P=C3=BAblica, Procuradur=C3=ADa General de <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= la Administraci=C3=B3n, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1), </= span>Dr. Jorge Ed= uardo Ritter (Ex Canciller, Ex Ministro de Gobierno y Justicia, d= e Trabajo y del Canal de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam= =C3=A1), Prof. Claire N= evache (Investigadora Asociada, Centro Internacional de Estudios = Pol=C3=ADticos y Sociales), Dra. Ana S=C3=A1nchez =E2=80=A0 (Miembro del Comit= =C3=A9 de Asesor de la Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial de la Salud). <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">&#= xa0;Equipo= Editorial: Prof. Alonso E. Illueca (Dire= ctor-Editor) Lic. Andr=C3=A9s Beck (Edito= r Asociado Ad Hoc) Lic. Juan Jos=C3=A9 Crespo (Editor Asociado A= d Hoc) Lic. Gloria Correa Polo (Editora Asociada Ad Hoc) = <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">_________________= ________________________________________________________ Direc= ci=C3=B3n postal: <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Facultad de Derecho y= Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (c/o Prof. Alonso E. Illueca, Director-Editor, Revista Ius= titia et Pulchritudo) Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa la Antigua = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Apdo. postal 0819-08550 Panam=C3=A1, Rep=C3=BAblica= de Panam=C3=A1 Tel=C3=A9fono (507) 269-1333 / 230-8265 / 2= 30-8235 / Correo ele<a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D= "_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">ctr=C3=B3nico: </a><a href= =3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-dec= oration:none">revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa <= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal; color:#0563c1"> </a>________________________________________________________________________= _ = 0;Impreso en Pa= nam=C3=A1, Ciudad de Panam=C3=A1. 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAD4/9uDAxIAAAAAQf9f9yNUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAO4CMgKZ5HfCONAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D= "624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO Segunda =C3=89poc= a Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero 2 (Julio-= Diciembre de 2021) <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">___________________________= __________________________________________________________ = =C3=8DNDIC= E ___________________________________________________________________= __________________ Palabras del Director - Editor...................= ...........................................................................= ......................02 C= onferencias <= span class=3D"stl42" style=3D"letter-spacing:normal">=E2=80=A2 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">Dra. Mar=C3= =ADa Helena Carbonell: Infodemia y Pandemia: caldo de cultivo para el COVID en </= span> </= span>el marco de los estados de excepc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2= =80=A6=E2=80=A6..=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A604 =E2=80=A2 Prof. Hugo Wood: Legislative Malapportionme= nt and Disproportionality: reforms to improve Panama=E2=80=99s democratic governanc= e=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6..=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80= =A6.........=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...=E2=80= =A6.10= = ;Investigaci=C3=B3n </span= > <= /span>=E2=80=A2 Lic. Ana= Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez: Interpreting the Justiciability of GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI= : = 0;Security Exceptions=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6....=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80= =A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80= =A6=E2=80=A616 =E2=80=A2 Dr. Carlos E. Weffe= : Pano= r=C3=A1mica general del sistema sancionador tributario aplicable al = = impuesto sobre la renta en Guatemala= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2= =80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6....= =E2=80=A6....=E2=80=A6...33 Jurisprudencia =E2=80=A2 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la = Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1; Magistrado Ponente Oyd=C3=A9n <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spaci= ng:normal">Ortega Dur=C3=A1n: Acci=C3=B3n de Inconstitucio= nalidad presentada por el Dr. Miguel Antonio = Bernal contra e= l =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 de la ley 60 de 29 de dici= embre de 2006, =E2=80=9CQue reforma el C=C3=B3digo Electoral=E2=80=9D<span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">, Entrada No. 647-08=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">.78 An=C3=A1li= sis de Jurisprudencia =E2=80=A2 Prof. Gianfranco S= mith: Contribuciones de la jurisprudencia paname=C3= =B1a a la pr=C3=A1ctica sobre el derecho hum= ano de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser postulados por un </s= pan> partido pol=C3=ADtico: Comentarios a la sentencia= de 27 de noviembre de 2014=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...</= span>=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.9= 1 1<= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 02 =E2=80=93 03 _____________________________________________________________= ________________________ Palabras del Director =E2=80=93 Prefacio El Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero= 2 de la Revista Iustitia et Pulchritudo presenta una ser= ie de investigaciones acad=C3=A9micas y conferencias magistr= ales sobre la pr=C3=A1ctica legal paname=C3=B1a e internacional. Tambi=C3= =A9n, como un aporte particular, se incluye una secci=C3=B3n= de jurisprudencia, la cual incluye la transcripci=C3=B3n de un fallo relevante de la Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Rep=C3=BAblica de= Panam=C3=A1, acompa=C3=B1ado de su respectivo an=C3=A1lisis. La revista inicia con una c= onferencia magistral de la Dra. Mar=C3=ADa Helena Carbonell de la Escuela d= e Derech= o y Justicia del Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales del Ecuador sobre l= a infodemia en medio de la pand= emia, en la cual analiza como las tecnolog=C3=ADas de la informaci=C3=B3n y= comunicaci=C3=B3n y las redes sociales han contribuido a una sobreabundancia de in= formaci=C3=B3n y de noticias falsas. La Dra. Carbonell tambi=C3=A9n nos explica las tres (= 3) estrategias principales a las que los Estados tiene acceso para hacer </= span> frente a los llamados =E2=80=9Cfake news=E2=80=9D, a saber: (1= ) la criminalizaci=C3=B3n de la propagaci=C3=B3n de noticias falsas a </spa= n> = trav=C3=A9s d= el derecho penal, (2) la utilizaci=C3=B3n de medidas administrativas para l= a creaci=C3=B3n de =C3=B3rganos encargados de combatir la desinformaci=C3=B3n, y (3) la adopci=C3=B3n de a= cuerdos con empresas privadas o con entidades de sociedad civil para verificar la v= eracidad de la informaci=C3=B3n compartida en las redes sociales <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">o el internet. En la implementaci=C3=B3n de cada una de estas estrateg= ias, tal y como lo explica la Dra. Carbonell, se deben incor= porar los est=C3=A1ndares internacionales de derechos humanos, en particula= r aquellos relativos a la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. En otr= a conferencia, el Prof. Hugo Wood N=C3=BA=C3=B1ez </= span>reflexiona sobre la realidad del = sistema electoral paname=C3=B1o y su inefectiva distribuci=C3=B3n y = = desproporcional= idad. En tal sentido, el Prof. Wood desarrolla estos conceptos a la luz de = los resultados de las elecciones generales de 2019 y propone aumentar el tama=C3= =B1o de los distritos electorales para resolver las distorsiones del sistema paname=C3=B1o. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">En el inter=C3=A9s de plantear un ejercicio= de derecho comparado, este n=C3=BAmero de la revista recoge una <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >investigaci=C3=B3n acad=C3=A9mica sobre = el sistema sancionador tributario aplicable al impuesto sobre la renta </sp= an> </sp= an>en Guatemala, en momentos en los qu= e esta tem=C3=A1tica es objeto de amplia discusi=C3=B3n en nuestro pa=C3=AD= s. &#x= a0;Gracias a los esfuerzos del = Dr. Camilo Vald=C3=A9s, profesor de nuestra Facultad de Derecho, el Dr. Car= los &#= xa0;Weffe, Investigador Asociad= o Senior del International Bureau of Fiscal Documen= tation y docente en el <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">M=C3=A1ster Avanzado de Tributaci=C3=B3n Internacional de la Unive= rsidad de =C3=81msterdam, ha publicado en este </spa= n>n=C3=BAmero d= e la revista una investigaci=C3=B3n minuciosa e in=C3=A9dita que sin duda a= lguna enriquecer=C3=A1 el debate sobre el sistema sancionador tributario en el foro= nacional. En la secci=C3=B3n de art=C3=ADculos de investigaci=C3=B3n tambi=C3=A9n = se incluye el trabajo de la Lic. Ana Carolina </span= >Rodr=C3=ADguez= el cual analiza la excepci=C3=B3n de seguridad nacional contenida en el ar= t=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio (GATT). En= su an=C3=A1lisis, Rodr=C3=ADguez nos relata como la doctrina, la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los Estados en la= pr=C3=A1ctica y la jurisprudencia internacional, en particular <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = la del mecanismo = de soluci=C3=B3n de controversias de la Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial de Comerc= io, han desarrollado el alcance y contenido de esta excepci= =C3=B3n. 2<= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Esta edici=C3=B3n de la revista tambi=C3=A9n ofrece una secci=C3= =B3n de jurisprudencia en donde se recoge el fallo de = 0;la Corte Suprema de Justicia = relativo a la acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad presentada por el Dr. Mig= uel &#= xa0;Anto= nio Bernal contra el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C= =C3=B3digo Electoral. En la secci=C3=B3n = subsiguiente, el Prof. Gianfranco Smith = analiza el fallo en cuesti=C3=B3n y nos ofrece algunas consideraciones sobre el d= erecho humano de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser postulados = por un p= artido pol=C3=ADtico. Para culm= inar, reconozco la asistencia brindada y el esfuerzo realizado por la Facul= tad de Derecho y <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Ciencias Pol= =C3=ADticas, en particular el de la Se=C3=B1ora Decana Ana Matilde G=C3=B3m= ez Ruiloba y de la Directora de= Escuela, Magaly Castillo. As=C3=AD mismo agradecemos el apoyo del Se=C3=B1= or Rector Profesor Francisco Blanco y del Se=C3=B1or Vicerrector Acad=C3=A9mico Pro= fesor Jorge Kam, por dotar de continuidad a este </s= pan>importante y tan necesario proyect= o acad=C3=A9mico. Igualmente, celebro las contribuciones de= mis colegas y editores asociados, Andr=C3=A9s Beck, Juan Jos=C3=A9 Crespo y Gloria= Correa cuyo trabajo es fundamental y es apreciado grandemente. = Profesor Alonso E. Illue= ca, LL.M. Director <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">3<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAA= ANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD= 6fLggAACBxJREFUeJztzr0NQQEUBtDv+U0oRG8AUxhDZxIL2MUEFjCHUiEhGpJHorKCS5wzwUkA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD+T1MdAIqtduNuf7jIszOqrsBb08vlcT3us13eqi/wjXr= VAaDYfdY+h6dDP82gugJvbZtbpudH9QMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+GdNdeBHz= JNskkyqI/y8fZJ1dQIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+= 7AXZrxTb/s7KiQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (IS= SN = 0;1607= -4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio -= Diciembre 2021 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">pp. 04 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </sp= an>09 = = ______________________= _______________________________________________________________ <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">&= #xa0;Inf= odemia y pandemia: caldo de cultivo para el COVID en el &#x= a0;marco de los estados de excepci=C3=B3n=EF=80=AA =EF=81=B9Dra. Mar=C3=ADa Helena Carbonell </sp= an> <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">*Autor para Co= rrespondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.= com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a hre= f=3D"mailto:maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.com </s= pan></a>Recibid= o: 23 de junio de 2021 Aceptado: 1 de julio de 2021 _________________________________________= ___________ Resumen: La present= e conferencia aborda la relaci=C3=B3n entre la pandemia del COVID-19, la in= fodemia que esta ha producido, = y las posibles repercusiones en la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Para ello, s= e desarrolla el concepto de lib= ertad de expresi=C3=B3n y su relaci=C3=B3n con el Estado democr=C3=A1tico. = Dentro de este marco, se hace referencia a la crisis multidisciplinaria que la pand= emia ha ocasionado. Y, concretamente, a la </= p>propagaci=C3=B3n de fake news = que han dado = como resultado una infodemia. Palabras clave: Pandem= ia, infodemia, libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, fake ne= ws, de= rechos humanos. <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Abstract: This conference addresses the relationship between the = COVID-19 pandemic, the infodemic it has produced, and its possible repercussions on free speech. To this = end, the concept of free speech and its relationship with democratic governance is = considered. In doing so, it incorporates the = multidisciplina= ry crisis that the pandemic has caused, focusing, specifically, in the spre= ad of fake news in the context of an infodemic. Keywords: Pandemic, infodemic, free speech, fake news, human ri= ghts =EF=80=AA= Esta ponencia se desarroll=C3=B3 en el marco de la presentaci= =C3=B3n de la investigaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=9CLa resistencia del Estado democr= =C3=A1tico de derecho en Am=C3=A9rica Latina frente a la pandemia del COVI= D19. Un enfoque desde el ius commune=E2=80=9D de autor=C3=ADa de Armin </sp= an> von= Bogdandy, Jes=C3=BAs Mar=C3=ADa Casal y Mariela Morales Antoniazzi. Este e= vento se llev=C3=B3 a cabo el 15 de enero de 2021 de </span= >manera virtual debido= a las restricciones causadas por el Covid-19. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:9.5pt">=EF=81=B9Abogada graduada de la Pontificia Uni= versidad Cat=C3=B3lica del Ecuador. M=C3=A1ster en Derecho Internacional Hu= manitario por la Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Huma= n Rights. Doctora en Derecho por la Universidad = Andina Sim=C3=B3n Bol=C3= =ADvar. Docente de la Escuela de Derechos y Justicia del Instituto de Altos= Estudios Nacionales. Consultora. L=C3=ADneas de investigaci=C3=B3n: der= echos humanos; Derecho Internacional P=C3=BAblico; g=C3=A9nero; sistemas in= ternacionales de protecci=C3=B3n de derechos; Derecho Internacional Humani= tario; refugio y movilidad. 4<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoC= AYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACN1JREFUeJzt= 1jFqFAEcxeE3m8muKAiiiBBsLSJWaQXxAJbaSKocxL2GjaSzSGOpNh7B2sLGSpHYaNAkOzO2Cmk= Cif+Z+H0n+BWveAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwGg11QETsZHkaZLL1SFM3ockL6sjAJi2tjpgIg6TfEpyqTq= EyftSHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAp9FUB8BobL+5Mp/PH1VnwJ+Ou= rzK7sNf1R3AuLTVATAaa/Oub/K5OgP+cvC1r04AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBxa6oDGKPlbL79YLNf5EZ1CfDvrbr+KD/232fvyc/qFuBk= bXUAY/RsOMrbg6zm9gH/o6E5Tu521RkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAXTVMdAJzC1vP19X= t3tqoz4DwcZ7af3Xcfk2Vf3QJj11YHAKdw8/asX8ut6gw4F93Q5fFmk73qEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC68pjoAmLwmO6+vpVtcrQ6B= M7PWDxkW3/Li/vfqFDhJWx0ATN2ySTe73rbZqC6BMzOkX60OV0kcOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAADgwvoNxCRBBjiZSLgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808= " alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Esta presentaci= =C3=B3n aborda la relaci=C3=B3n entre la epidemia, la infodemia y la libert= ad de expresi=C3=B3n en el marco de las democracias latinoam= ericanas. Como punto de partida, es preciso recordar que uno de <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> los pilares fundame= ntales de los Estados democr=C3=A1ticos es la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. V= arios organismos <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">internacionale= s, como la Organizaci=C3=B3n de Estados Americanos (OEA) y la Corte Interam= ericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH) han reconocido el rol central de la liberta= d de expresi=C3=B3n en las sociedades democr=C3=A1ticas, especialmente en relaci=C3= =B3n con el respeto de los derechos humanos. La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, en pala= bras de la CIDH es un pilar de la democracia desde su doble dimensi=C3=B3n:= la individual y la colectiva. La primera incluye el poder b= uscar y compartir informaci=C3=B3n. La segunda, </sp= an>en lo que re= specta a la actuaci=C3=B3n del poder p=C3=BAblico se relaciona con la publi= cidad y la transparencia que debe regir su comportamiento. A pesar de lo anterior, hay que reconocer que el ejerci= cio de la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n tiene ciertos l=C3=ADmites. Estos l=C3=ADmites= , sin embargo, no son exclusivos a la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, sino que = varios derechos prev=C3=A9n la posibilidad de que su ejercic= io sea restringido en situaciones excepcionales. </s= pan>Actualmente, debido a su importanc= ia para la rendici=C3=B3n de cuentas y la transparencia, la libertad de </s= pan> </s= pan>expresi=C3= =B3n se est=C3=A1 convirtiendo, como bien recogen los autores, en uno de lo= s derechos cuyo ejercicio no deber=C3=ADa ser susceptible de suspensi=C3=B3n, inclu= so durante estados de excepci=C3=B3n. Los estados de excepci=C3=B3n se originan por= momentos cr=C3=ADticos de una sociedad y, en palabras de los autores, abre= n un par= =C3=A9ntesis en la legalidad. En consecuencia, dejan el manejo de la crisis= al buen juicio de los gobiernos de turno. Sin embargo, esta excepcionalidad no es absoluta. El Derecho Co= nstitucional, as=C3=AD como el Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, limit= a esta potestad. Para profundizar en el tema, </span= >se puede revis= ar la jurisprudencia de la Corte IDH sobre la limitaci=C3=B3n del ejercicio= de los derechos.1 <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, en el marco de una sociedad democr=C3= =A1tica, permea a todos los sectores y, m=C3=A1s </s= pan>a=C3=BAn, a toda la actuaci=C3=B3n= estatal. Lo anterior se ha comprobado con la pandemia del COVID-19 y su </= span> </= span>relaci=C3=B3n con la libertad de = expresi=C3=B3n, tanto en su dimensi=C3=B3n individual como colectiva. </spa= n> </spa= n>La pandemia d= el COVID-192 ha ocasionado una crisis multifac=C3= =A9tica3. Por un lado, tenemos la arista de la salud p=C3=BAblica: la enfermedad se ha expandido a todo= s los continentes, salvo la Ant=C3=A1rtida, trayendo 1NACIONES UNIDAS, PACTO INTERNACIONAL DE LOS DEREC= HOS CIVILES Y POL=C3=8DTICOS, COMIT=C3=89 DE DERECHOS HUMANOS: =E2=80=9COb= servaci=C3=B3n general N.=C2=BA 34. Art=C3=ADculo 19: Libertad de opini=C3= =B3n y libertad de expresi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D (12/9/2011). Disponible en: </s= pan><a href=3D"https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC/34" target=3D"_blank" style= =3D"text-decoration:none">https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC= /34</a><a href=3D"https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC/34" target=3D"_bla= nk" style=3D"text-decoration:none">; </a>LA COL= EGIACI=C3=93N OBLIGATORIA DE PERIODISTAS. Corte Interamericana de Derechos= Humanos. Opini=C3=B3n Consultiva OC-5/85 de 13 de noviembre de <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;1985. Se= rie A No. 5.; CASO TRIST=C3=81N DONOSO VS. PANAM=C3=81. Corte Interamerican= a de Derechos Humanos. Excepci=C3=B3n Preliminar, Fondo, Reparaciones y C= ostas. Sentencia de 27 de enero de 2009. Serie C No. 193; GARC=C3=8DA </spa= n> RAM= =C3=8DREZ, S. y GONZA, A. (2007): La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n en la juris= prudencia de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos </p= >Humanos (M=C3=A9xico, Co= rte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y Comisi=C3=B3n de Derechos Humanos = del Distrito Federal); ORGANIZACI=C3=93N DE ESTADOS AMERICANOS, COMISI=C3= =93N INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANOS (2020): =E2=80=9CRelator=C3=ADa de= Libertad de Expresi=C3=B3n, Declaraci=C3=B3n de principios de la libertad = de expresi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D. Disponible en<a href=3D"http://www.oas.= org/es/cidh/expresion/informes/tematicos.asp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"http://www.oa= s.org/es/cidh/expresion/informes/tematicos.asp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">http://www.oas.org/es/cidh/expresio= n/informes/tematicos.asp </a>2 Enfermedad causad= a por el coronavirus conocido como SARS-CoV-2 y que fue informada a la OMS = el 31 de diciembre de 2019. THE VISUAL AND DATA JOURNALISM TEAM,= BBC NEWS: =E2=80=9CCovid map: Coronavirus cases, deaths, <= /span>vaccinations by = country=E2=80=9D. Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.bbc.= com/news/world-51235105" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none"><= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; color:#000000">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-512= 35105" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">h= ttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-51235105 </s= pan></a>3= SHARMA, A., & BORAH,= S.B. (2020): =E2=80=9CCovid-19 and Domestic Violence: an Indirec= t Path to Social and Economic Crisis=E2=80=9D Journal of Family Violence. = Disponible en<a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020= -00188-8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8" targe= t=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.o= rg/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8 </a></p= >5<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgo= AAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADs= QBD6fLggAACNpJREFUeJzt3T1qVAEUhuHvzi+oUQtDOm2t3IJKliDaa5F1uBIJWLoDbUQEC2sD2= ioqOEQR1GF+7rgBwRQJ597J86zgLU5xui8BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAACgN5rqgJ64mORmknF1CL13nORDdQQA/TaqDuiJq0n2k1yoDqH33scDBwAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwJZpqgPoo= IevdtOsb1RnwKlq8ymHd79WZwCchlF1AB00XwwyHboNtst8OahOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADqiqQ6gZw5eXBmvh/eyaS5Xp8BZ2qQ= 9Wj3Zf17dAfAvo+oAeubjcr7cm7zNoJ1Wp8CZagez6gQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACADmmqA3rh0eudNItbo6YZV6cAQNc0q/xY/vp2lGc= PFtUt58WoOqAXvvxc5Nrw82oyGVanAEDntO2fJOvqDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAkpr= RO5v67SS7N9rJpLTHAtlovfufpm1nyuK1OAfgfU1onsfN9mmZ93RYqbK/VcDLLndvHeRkPHAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA58JfSVVD3jh9YmcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"= 624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />consigo m=C3=A1s de un= mill=C3=B3n de muertos4. Frente al n=C3=BAmero creciente de personas fa= llecidas y al alto =C3=ADndice de contagio, una de las respuestas, por parte de los= Estados, fue imponer una cuarentena y un </p= >aislamiento oblig= atorio, con el objetivo de frenar la propagaci=C3=B3n del virus. <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Por otro lado, desde mediados de 2020, los Estados han enfrentado una = realidad adicional: la crisis econ=C3=B3mica. La crisis econ= =C3=B3mica causada por el COVID-19 es ex=C3=B3gena, incierta y global; lo q= ue requi= ere una respuesta estatal espec=C3=ADfica, especialmente, frente a las cons= ecuencias econ=C3=B3micas deriv= adas del confinamiento. Por ello, muchos Estados empezaron a levantar las p= rohibiciones de <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">movilidad y a permitir la reapertura de ciertos negocios.<sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt; l= etter-spacing:normal">5 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Las consecuencias econ=C3=B3micas de la pand= emia se han agudizado por varios factores, entre ellos: la falta de abastecimiento = de ciertas materias primas y el aumento de los costos de fletes para </span= > <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">exportaciones e importaciones. Este panorama, que de por s=C3=AD e= s l=C3=BAgubre, se complica a=C3=BAn m=C3=A1s. </spa= n>Por la pandemia, en palabras del Dir= ector General de la OMS, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, nos hemos dado cuenta que nos = enfrentamos a una =E2=80=9Cinfodemia=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cinfodemic=E2=80=9D = en ingl=C3=A9s).6 Si bien en cierto que la actual pandemia no es la primera a = la que se ha enfrentado la humanidad, la pandemia del = 0;COVID-= 19 tiene unas caracter=C3=ADsticas que la diferencian de las anteriores, co= ncretamente en lo que respecta a la informaci=C3=B3n disponible. Por un lado, exist= e una sobreabundancia de informaci=C3=B3n. Esta sobreabundancia proviene de diversos sectores, tanto ofici= ales como no oficiales. Por otro lado, es la primera vez que, durante una pandemia,= se usa la tecnolog=C3=ADa de las telecomunicaciones para nutrir la = <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">relaci=C3=B3n entre las autoridades y la poblaci=C3=B3n. Entre esta= s tecnolog=C3=ADas destacan las redes sociales, usadas &= #xa0;p= or los gobiernos para mantener a la poblaci=C3=B3n segura, informada y cone= ctada.7 &#= xa0;Esta= sobreabundancia de informaci=C3=B3n es calificada como una infodemia, tant= o por su car=C3=A1cter global, como por la falta de una estrategia coordinada, a = nivel internacional, sobre c=C3=B3mo eliminarla =E2=80=93lo cual, lastimosamente, tambi=C3=A9n ocurre con la pandemi= a del COVID-19. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sobre el tema, = cabe resaltar que, actualmente, un universo de informaci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 a= nuestro alcance con el solo to= que de la pantalla de un celular, tablet o computadora. Lastimosamente, no = toda esa informaci=C3=B3n es verdadera. Lo anterior se intensifica con las redes so= ciales, que son una de las 4 El avance del virus puede s= er observado en vivo en diversas p=C3=A1ginas, desde la OMS, pasando por el= Worldometer y la BBC, hasta las p=C3=A1ginas oficiales de diferentes Esta= dos. 5BORIO,= C. (2020): =E2=80=9CThe Covid-19 economic crisis: dang= erously unique=E2=80=9D Bussiness Economi= cs, Vol. 55, pp. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt">181-190. </sp= an>Disponible en: </sp= an><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1057/s11369-020-00184-2" target=3D"_blank"= style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.org/10.1057/s= 11369-020-00184-2</a><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1057/s11369-020-0= 0184-2" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= ; </a>BORIO, C. (2020): =E2=80=9CThe prudential respons= e to the Covid- 19 crisis=E2=80=9D, speech on the occasion of the Bank=E2= =80=99s Annual General Meeting, Bank for International Settlements (6/30/20= 20). Disponible en: <a href=3D"https://www.bis.org/s= peeches/sp200630a.htm" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none"><sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = color:#0563c1">https://www.bis.org/speeches/sp200630a.htm</a><a href= =3D"https://www.bis.org/speeches/sp200630a.htm" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">; </a>DOUWE VAN DER PLOEG= , Jan (2020): =E2=80=9CFrom biomedical to politico-economic crisis: the f= ood system in times of Covid-19=E2=80=9D, The Journal of Peasant = Studies, 47:5, 944- 972, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2020.1794843 </sp= an> 6 = TEDROS ADHANOM GHEBREYESUS (2020). 7 L=C3=93PEZ-CALVA, L.F. (2020): =E2=80=9CWhere the pandemic= meets the infodemic: The challenge of misinformation in the fight <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> against <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">COVI= D-19 in LAC=E2=80=9D. Disponible <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">en: <= /p><a href=3D"https://www.lat= inamerica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-graph-for-t= hought/where-the-pandemic-meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.htm= l" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https= ://www.latinamerica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-g= raph-for-thought/where-the- </a><= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><a href=3D"https://www.latinam= erica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-graph-for-thoug= ht/where-the-pandemic-meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.html" t= arget=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">pandemic-= meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.html </a>6</sp= an><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACWtJREFUeJzt3b9LlWEYx+H7Ob5HMyyUIByM3KOmphrCM= aG1JQiR9iD6T9qjqM29IIIT0dDS2BBULhGRRL8oPcfzntMaQWCm3ufV61qf5cMz3ds3AgAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADjISnZAQ7QjYib8F/+vGxFfsiMAaLYqO6AhZiL= iUkQcyg6h8VYj4kF2BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALBPlewAAH5z5= cHR9sTkcnYGu2tQypv68M9HcWuxm90CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAuUxpAYyq5c7Z= 9rB1KjsD9tKgxHq9WT2Je+c/ZreMsio7AIC/6Nerm2X8c3YG7KnSq2Os9y07AwAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgL1iC3UrljrzVbSulzKc+vNpWMrX/u0LNzOyOACuPj5WVeM3ynBwPDsFdk= Vpvdj8Xt2NlXPr2SkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAMCoKtkBsC1LnemImM7OAGCHlV4dH+qP8XCxm50yyqrsANiW1vDk2LCczs4AYIeV= 9no9O/k0ItayU0aZA45melte1vPxKjsDgB32YWMYDy/2sjMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC= ABrOFuhXLz45E6Z2pSmlnpzTN2Ea8695feJ3dAQD7iSmtrVj7XMfxqa/9vv/6V/3WYD27AQAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGAUlOyAxrnSmWu3Yy47A4Dm27yz8Dy7gWaqsgMapx1Tg7GYzc4A= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALapZAf= se9c6c9GPKjsDGunH2vtYudzLzgAYNQ6LXVYNyomohhPZHdBE/e7Ep4hwwAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwC74BRGPZnsJW+cSAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"= 808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />herramientas m= =C3=A1s utilizadas para obtener informaci=C3=B3n8= . Esta es la mayor prueba de que el acceso a la </sp= an>informaci=C3=B3n no es igual al con= ocimiento. Sumado a lo anterior, tene= mos la popularizaci=C3=B3n de las llamadas =E2=80=9Cfake news=E2=80=9D o noticias falsas. Pero =C2=BFqu=C3=A9 = ;son estas fake news<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">? Aunque no ha= y una definici=C3=B3n exacta, podemos conceptualizarlas como aquellas </spa= n> </spa= n>informaciones= que buscan enga=C3=B1ar intencionalmente a los destinatarios, obviando las= fronteras estatales. En funci=C3=B3n de lo anterior, podemos clasificar los </span= >fake = news e= n dos tipos: las que, por un lado, tergiversan informaci=C3=B3n ver=C3=ADdica; y, l= as que, por otro lado, inventan informaci=C3=B3n totalmente err=C3=B3nea. <= /span> En un est= udio realizado en 2020, el Reuters Institute determin=C3=B3 que el 59% de l= os fake news tergiversan informaci=C3=B3n ver=C3=ADdica; mientras que el 38% inventa inf= ormaci=C3=B3n err=C3=B3nea. El mismo estudio determin=C3=B3 = que 88% de los fake news proviene de redes sociales como = Facebook, Twitter, entre otras. Adicionalmente, el Observat= orio de la Infodemia del Comit=C3=A9 de la Fundaci=C3=B3n Bruno Kessler se= =C3=B1al=C3=B3, con datos de octubre de 2020, que en Am=C3=A9rica Latina la inform= aci=C3=B3n sobre el COVID-19 es, en muchos casos, poco confiable en lo que respecta= a Twitter. Seg=C3=BAn datos de la OMS (2020), en un lapso de 30 d=C3=ADas hu</span= >bo 361 000 000 tuits con los hashtags =E2=80=9C#COVID19=E2=80=9D= o =E2=80=9C#COVID-19=E2=80=9D. En ese s= entido, en marzo de 2020 hubo 55 millones de tuits sobre la = pandemia del COVID 19. Y, desde enero de = 2020 hasta octubre de 2020, se publicaro= n 19200 art=C3=ADculos en Google Scholar.9 <= /p>Hay casos en amb= os extremos: En Argentina y Jamaica el 80% de las noticias sobre el tema so= n confiables, mientras que en Per=C3=BA y Venezuela solo el = 25%. En Ecuador, de acuerdo con el estudio, el </spa= n>45% de los tweets son confiables. En= ese orden, los pa=C3=ADses con menores =C3=ADndices de confianza en el </s= pan> </s= pan>gobierno so= n los que tambi=C3=A9n tienen los menores =C3=ADndices de confianza en las = noticias. Ahora bien, ustedes pueden preguntarse c=C3=B3mo se relaciona esto con el= COVID-19 y la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Para poder responder esa pregunta, debemos indagar sobre qu=C3= =A9 versa esta avalancha de informaci=C3=B3n falsa y c=C3=B3mo la respuesta estatal= a la pandemia los termina afectando. Los fake news sobre el COVID- <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">19 se refieren a: qu=C3=A9 hacer para evita= r el COVID-19, qu=C3=A9 hacer si una persona se ha contagiado, qu=C3=A9 </s= pan> </s= pan>medicamentos tomar en caso de cont= agio, qu=C3=A9 est=C3=A1 haciendo el gobierno frente a la pandemia, entre <= /span> <= /span>otros. Ev= identemente, algunas de estas noticias contienen datos que pueden poner en = riesgo la vida de las personas. </s= pan>En lo que respecta a la actuaci=C3= =B3n estatal, los gobiernos buscan proyectar la imagen de que tienen un </s= pan> </s= pan>control rea= l y efectivo sobre la pandemia y sobre la respuesta que dan frente a ella.<= /span>10 La diversidad de = 8 Solo par= a tener en cuenta algunos datos: en 2020 exist=C3=ADan 3.6 billones de usua= rios de redes sociales y se espera que para el 2025= ese n=C3=BAmero crezca a 4.41 billones. &= #xa0;9 </spa= n>COVID19 INFODEMICS OBSERVATORY (2020). Disponible en<a href=3D"= https://covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:no= ne">: </a><a href=3D"https://covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/"= target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https:/= /covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/ </a>; THE LANCET </p= >INFECTIOUS DISEASES (202= 0): =E2=80=9CThe COVID-19 infodemic=E2=80=9D. <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt;= letter-spacing:normal">DOI: <a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1016/S147= 3-3099(20)30565-X" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565- </a><= a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X" target=3D"_blank" = style=3D"text-decoration:none">X </a>; WORLDO= METER. Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.worldometers.info/coronav= irus/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">:= </a><a href=3D"https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/" target= =3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.wo= rldometers.info/coronavirus/ </a>= 10 </p= >UNDP, =E2=80=9CGovernmen= ts must lead fight against coronavirus misinformation and disinformation=E2= =80=9D, (6/10/2020). Disponible en: <a href=3D"https://www.undp.org/press= -releases/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-against-coronavirus-misinformati= on-and" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= https://www.undp.org/press-releases/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-agains= t-coronavirus- </a><a href=3D"https://www.undp.org/press-relea= ses/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-against-coronavirus-misinformation-and= " target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">misinf= ormation-and </a>ADAMS E. y USCINSKI, J. (2020): =E2=80=9CC= onspiracy theories run rampant when people feel helpless. Like now=E2=80=9D= , The <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Washington Post, (5/5/2020). Disponible en: <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;<a href=3D"htt= ps://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/05/coronavirus-conspiracy-theor= ies-pandemic/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/05/coronavirus-conspi= racy-theories-pandemic/ </a>WARDLE, C., =E2=80=9CConspiraci= es, Rumors and Falsehoods: The truth about why the infodemic is so dangerou= s=E2=80=9D, Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.youtube.com/watch?= v=3Dj1G5B8j5UG8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Dj1G5B8j5= UG8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">htt= ps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Dj1G5B8j5UG8 <= /span></a>7<= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64= ,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSF= lzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACOhJREFUeJzt3bFqUwEcxeFze2/S2lREKEK3LoIo6FBXR0fHurn4V= r6AS0cnJxdnJx0cxEmFilQrLZrcJL5CUeGf23zfE/zGs50EAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALrWmOmAgriU5SDKuDmHwjpO8qY4AYNi66oCB2ElyP8l2dQiD9z4GHAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwP/QVAcMwsGzUW7vX0873qhOAaDY7/Tpv57k6P= G8OoX11VUHDMK9O1tppje7JqPqFABq9e3iPMdX3iY5r24BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgLzXVAYPw5OVktLl9K30/qk4BgMHbSD/71X3I= 8wcn1SlD1VUHDEI7Hi0W8xtps1mdAgCDN19Os3H2qToDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC= AVeAL9SKevr6aZnq3axpfqEWavjmbffv5Li8enVe3AEA1X6gX8eV0mt32cz8et9Upa2s+m2Zvb1= adAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAinOlBavi8NVOJtmtzoBLrV0sc7r4nqOHP6pT4F+40= oJVMclO12W/OgMutXmz7LfyMYkBBwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACsvT+zUURK3p9iQ= AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />fuentes de informaci=C3=B3n tiende a afe= ctar esta imagen. En consecuencia, esta infodemia = merma = la &#x= a0;confi= anza en el Estado, los centros de salud y el trabajo que estos realizan. </= span> Aqu=C3=AD = los medios de comunicaci=C3=B3n juegan un rol importante. Sin embargo, se h= a visto c=C3=B3mo, en ciertos casos, estos medios de comunicaci=C3=B3n han dado pas= o a informaci=C3=B3n amarillista y contradictoria. Por &= #xa0;e= jemplo, las declaraciones de Jair Bolsonaro y Donald Trump sobre el uso de = mascarillas y sobre la eficacia de las vacunas.11 <= /span>Asimismo, las teor=C3=ADas conspirativas tienen mayor aside= ro cuando la gente est=C3=A1 ansiosa por la falta de informaci=C3=B3n completa y co= herente sobre qu=C3=A9 sucede, qu=C3=A9 se debe hacer y qu=C3=A9 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >no se debe hacer,= entre otros. Se han identificado tres estrategias estatales para dar respuesta a e= sta situaci=C3=B3n. Cabe destacar que la adopci=C3=B3n de estas medidas se ha hecho= mediante decretos de excepci=C3=B3n, decretos espec=C3=ADficos o =E2=80=9C= leyes flash=E2=80=9D, sin respetar los procesos democr=C3=A1= ticos establecidos a nivel nacional. La primera estrategia es la criminalizaci=C3= =B3n de la propagaci=C3=B3n de fake news<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. Es decir, hacer= uso del Derecho Penal para frenar la infodemia. Tenemos, por ejemplo, al gobierno = de Orban en Hungr=C3=ADa o el Decreto N. 420 en Bolivia, lo cuales impusieron penas= de privaci=C3=B3n de libertad a quienes incurr=C3=ADan en conductas relacionadas con compartir <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">fake new= s sobre el COVID-19. Por un lado, es importante <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">advertir que el uso del ius puniendi <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">puede disminuir= la posibilidad de revisar las actuaciones estatales y, por el otro, que el trabajo de los periodistas se= ve claramente afectado al vulnerarles su libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Adem=C3=A1s= , no siempre se comparten estas fake news de forma malici= osa. En consecuencia, la imponer penas por compartir fake news p= uede configurarse en abuso del derecho y en violaci=C3=B3n de la <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">libertad de expres= i=C3=B3n. La segunda estrategia es la implementaci=C3=B3n de medidas administrativa= s, mediante la creaci=C3=B3n de =C3=B3rganos para el combat= ir la desinformaci=C3=B3n o la malainformaci=C3=B3n. Algunos ejemplos se pu= eden enc= ontrar en India y Serbia, d=C3=B3nde se tiene establecido qui=C3=A9n est=C3= =A1 autorizado para dar informaci=C3=B3n sobre el COVID-19 y cu=C3=A1l es la corres= pondiente respuesta estatal. Otro ejemplo puede ser Rumania, en d=C3=B3nde, si bien= no se cre=C3=B3 una entidad espec=C3=ADfica, se flexibilizaron los plazos = en los cuales las = autoridades deb=C3=ADan suministrar informaci=C3=B3n sobre la pan= demia, por ejemplo, ante requerimientos de </= p>periodistas. La tercera estrategia es la adopci= =C3=B3n de gu=C3=ADas o acuerdos con empresas privadas para bajar el conten= ido de <= /span>= fake news en sus redes sociales. Esto se ha hecho en conjunto, muchas veces, con = organismos internacionales, as= =C3=AD como con entidades de la sociedad civil. En ese sentido, en este =C3= =BAltimo semestre, se ha visto = una proliferaci=C3=B3n de sitios de encargados de revisar las noticias y de= hacer lo que en ingl=C3=A9s SCOTT BRENNEN, J., et al. (2020): =E2=80=9CTypes, = Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation=E2=80= =9D, factsheet 2020, Reuters Institute.= Disponible en: https://reutersinstitute.politics= .ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2020-04/Brennen%20- </= p>%20COVID%2019%20Misinfor= mation%20FINAL%20%283%29.pdf 11 DW, =E2=80=9CBolsonaro busca frenar de nuevo medidas co= ntra COVID-19=E2=80=9D, (28/5/2021). Disponible en: &#x= a0;<a href=3D"http= s://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca-frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-covid-19/a= -57695492" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca-frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-cov= id-19/a-57695492</a><a href=3D"https://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca= -frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-covid-19/a-57695492" target=3D"_blank" styl= e=3D"text-decoration:none">; </a>EFE, =E2=80=9CJair Bolsonaro = 0;promueve tres= tipos de t=C3=A9 ind=C3=ADgenas para tratar el COVID-19 en Brasi= l=E2=80=9D, (27/5/2021). Disponible en: </= p><a href=3D"https://www.elun= iverso.com/noticias/internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-= indigenas-para-tratar-el-covid-19-en-brasil-nota/" target=3D"_blank" style= =3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.eluniverso.com/noti= cias/internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-indigenas-para-= tratar-el- </a><a href=3D"https://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/= internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-indigenas-para-trata= r-el-covid-19-en-brasil-nota/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:n= one">covid-19-en-brasil-nota/ </a>; TOLLEFSON, = J. (2020): =E2=80=9CHow Trump damaged science =E2=80=94 and why it could take decades to rec= over=E2=80=9D, (10/5/2020). Disponible en<a href=3D"https:= //www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02800-9" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.n= ature.com/articles/d41586-020-02800-9" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-deco= ration:none">https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-0= 2800-9 </a>8se c= onoce como =E2=80=9Cfact checking=E2=80=9D. Por ejemplo, ver el trabajo de = OpenSecrets, la African Infodemic Response Alliance, Polifact, Boomlive, entre otros. Si bien usar la ley para l= imitar los fake news no es una novedad (ya en 1257 Eduardo I emiti=C3=B3 la ley = = contra =E2=80=9Cnoticias y cuen= tos falsos=E2=80=9D), actualmente existen est=C3=A1ndares nacionales e inte= rnacionales que <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">contemplan las circunstancias para limitar la libertad de expresi= =C3=B3n y para evitar la limitaci=C3=B3n arbitraria. = ;Adicion= almente, si se empieza a seguir el planteamiento de ciertos autores sobre q= ue la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n es un derecho cuyo ejercici= o es inderogable y no susceptible de limitaci=C3=B3n, los Estados deben </s= pan> encontrar n= uevas herramientas para enfrentar la infodemia. Frente a estas actuaciones que, en mucho= s casos, podr=C3=ADan ser calificadas como desesperadas, los =C3=B3rganos de protec= ci=C3=B3n de Derechos Humanos han emitido varias resoluciones que contienen= = ;recomendaciones para los Estad= os en el marco de la pandemia. En todas ellas se recuerda la importancia de que las medidas adoptadas para= frenar la propagaci=C3=B3n del virus tengan a los derechos humanos como centro. </= span> Si bien es cierto que los derechos humanos son la br=C3=BAjula= del poder estatal, en =C3=A9poca de pandemia, la </= span>infodemia puede ayudar a propagar la enfermedad y a minar el trabajo del Estado por = contenerla. De igual manera, puede amplificar los discurso= s de odio, el riesgo de conflictos, la estigmatizaci=C3=B3n, la <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> violencia, las viol= aciones de derechos humanos, siendo, en consecuencia, un riesgo real para l= a = 0;democracia. A estos riesgos h= ay que sumarle las afectaciones a la vida, la salud y la integridad de las = = personas. Muchas gracias por haberme = permitido hacer estas reflexiones superficiales sobre una relaci=C3=B3n </s= pan> tripartita: libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, infodemia y pandemia. Relaci=C3=B3n que debe ser abordada no solo desde <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>el plano jur=C3=ADdico, sino que tambi= =C3=A9n requiere un enfoque multidisciplinario para lograr una mayor </span= > </span= >protecci=C3=B3n a los derechos humano= s. Finalmente, cabe se=C3=B1alar que, al igual que la pandemia, se requiere= = ;un abor= daje global de esta relaci=C3=B3n, ya que tanto la propagaci=C3=B3n de los = fake news como del COVID-19 no se li= mita a las fronteras estatales. 9<= span style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:8"><img= src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NA= AAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACCRJREFUeJztzjFqAlEYBsBv= cREjwUbwJPY5gTf0FoKHSbOdna2FJm9ziKA/D2dOMAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAb2yoDgDFDqf1uNvs04aP6grP9bOYv3P8mqofwP+N1QGg2PazDXO7zW3xW13hye7tUV= 0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAeLWhOtCJXZJDklV1hO5NSc7VCQD6NlYHOnFPckmyrI7QvWt1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAHhTfyjPFd/o1xJ2AAAAAEl= FTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute= " />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt"= > 1607-4319) <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:normal">Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 <span= class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; le= tter-spacing:normal"> pp. 10 =E2=80=93 1= 5 _________________________________________________= ____________________________________ Legislative Malapp= ortionment and Disproportionality: </spa= n>reforms to improve Panama=E2= =80=99s democratic governance=EF=80=AA = Hugo Wood N=C3=BA=C3=B1ez=EF=81=B9 *Autor para Correspondencia. E-mail<a href= =3D"mailto:hugowood06@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration= :none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:hugowood06@gmail.com" target=3D"_bl= ank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">hugowood06@gmail.com <= /span></a>Recib= ido: 30 de junio de 2021 Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 </spa= n> = ________= ______________________________________________________________________ </sp= an> = ;Resumen: La realidad electoral de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 plantea una inef= ectiva distribuci=C3=B3n electoral y desproprorcionalidades electorales. Dichos fen= =C3=B3menos electorales reflejan distorsiones en las instituciones democr=C3=A1ticas paname=C3=B1as. Por e= jemplo, la Asamblea Nacional de Panam=C3=A1, donde el sistema de elecci=C3=B3n de= diputados no cumple con una representatividad real de los ciudadanos </spa= n> = paname=C3=B1os. En el presente ensayo, el autor desarrolla los co= nceptos de mala distribuci=C3=B3n y desproporcionalidad elec= torales con los resultados de las Elecciones Generales de Panam=C3=A1 del a= =C3=B1o 2019. A su vez, plantea la posibilidad de aumentar e= l tama=C3=B1o de los distritos electorales para resolver &= #xa0;e= stas distorsiones del sistema electoral paname=C3=B1o. &= #xa0;Palabras clave: </s= pan>Mala distribuci=C3=B3n electoral, desproporcionalidad, sistem= as electorales, distritos electorales, representaci=C3=B3n democr=C3=A1tica, gobier= no democr=C3=A1tico. Abstract: Panama=E2=80=99s electoral rea= lity demonstrates legislative malapportionment and electoral disproportionality. Those distortions are reflected in Panamanian democrat= ic institutions. For instance, the current composition of Panama=E2=80=99s Legislat= ure does not comply with the standards of citizen representation. In this article, the author discusses the idea= s of malapportionment and dispr= oportionality within the Panamanian Electoral System in light of the result= s of 2019 General = Elections. Th= e author also recommends increasing the magnitude and scope of electoral di= stricts. Keywords<s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">: Malapportionment, disproportionality, electoral systems, electora= l districts, democratic representation, democratic governanc= e. =EF=80=AA<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">E= nsayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9CDemocracy and Development in= Latin America=E2=80=9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en Pol=C3=ADtica </sp= an> P= =C3=BAblicas de the London School of Economics and Political Sciences. </sp= an> <span= class=3D"stl42" style=3D"font-size:6.5pt; letter-spacing:normal">=EF=81=B9= Licenciado en D= erecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, = Magna Cum Laude); Maest= r=C3=ADa en Derecho y Desarrollo Internacional (Tulane University Law Scho= ol); Maestr=C3=ADa en Estudios Globales e Internacionales <= /span>(Tsinghua Univer= sity in Beijing, Schwarzman Scholar); Maestr=C3= =ADa en Pol=C3=ADticas P=C3=BAblicas (The London School of Economics </span= > and P= olitical Science, Chevening Scholar); Profesor A= djunto de Derecho, Pol=C3=ADtica y Econom=C3=ADa de Comportamiento <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua). 10 </sp= an><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBBJREFUeJzt1rEJwgAURdGXoEgaW13MRgdwOknnFhY2Y= uEggkScIQT5RM+Z4JY3AQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABGa6oDZqJN0lVH8BOGJM/qCADmbVEdMB= ObJLuYOKZ7JDlVRwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMEVTHQDACIfze= rnq9k3bbqtT+C/DO7fheu9zOb6qWwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAD4lg8DPw4FuMXHVwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" a= lt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />I. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spacin= g:0.05pt"> <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Introduction In Panama, the legislature is one of the less trus= ted institutions and is a constant focal point for controversy. A large criticism resides on the quality o= f legislators, clientelism and corruption, and the accurate representation of citizens. This essay will di= scuss the latter factor through the analysis of two challenges that concern the qua= lity of participation and the fairness of legislative representation in </s= pan> Panama: the= so-ca= lled =E2=80=98malapportionment=E2=80=99 and disproportionality. This articl= e will also argue for the incre= ase of electoral district magnitudes. Malapportionment refers to the unequal relationship that exists be= tween the percentage of citizens residing in each legislative district and the percentage of elected legis= lators in it. Malapportionment = translates into distortions in the average number of voters for each legisl= ator among the different electoral districts that divide the nation. Disproportiona= lity, as the same word indicates, is the = disproportionality between the part of v= otes and the part of legislative seats obtained by each party. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Disproportionality leads to the over-repres= entation of some parties and the under-representation of others with respect to its effective electoral we= ight. Both phenomena are especially problematic for democratic governance, insofar as they tend to invalid= ate the fundamental principle according to which each vote should have the same political-electoral weight= . = 0;II. Background<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </spa= n>and co= ntext =E2=80=93 Panama=E2=80=99s Democratic and Legis= lative Outlook Panama recovered its democracy in 1989, = after 21 years of dictatorship rule. Since then, 6 elections have been held, having= one of the highest turnout averages in the world (74%), and in each one, t= he &#x= a0;rulin= g power gave away its mandate to an opposing party. This phenomenon has bee= n carried through peaceful electoral processes, that highlig= ht the health of its democracy. However, the country still faces <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">enduring institutional challenges to fairly represent its citizens. </= span> The political class that has been ruling since the democratic = transition is increasingly questioned by a </= p>disenchanted and critical citizenship th= at begins to distrust its elected representatives and perceives <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = corruption as one of the fundamental obs= tacles to the country's development1. Likewise, a growing number of political and social actors denounc= e a growing inequality in the access and distribution of the positions of popular election, leaving many p= arties without representation in the National Assembly. Here arise the malaise and risks of ungovernabilit= y associated with a latent crisis of traditional parties, political representation and democratic legitima= cy in general. <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Among the options to improve the performance of a political system a= re the possibilities offered by the reform of the electoral= system. Duverger argues that electoral systems shape the number of parties= and the= refore the outcomes of democratic processes2. Wit= hout being the panacea, the set of legal = norms that regula= te the transformation of votes into mandates of popular representation exer= ts a great influence on the modalities of partisan competiti= on, the quality of citizen participation, the </span= >1LATINOBAROMETRO<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">, Informe 2018. Retrieved on February 10, 2020 fro<a= href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D= "text-decoration:none">m </a><a href=3D"http://www= .latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:no= ne">http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp</a><a h= ref=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"t= ext-decoration:none">. </s= pan></a>2 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">D= UVERGER, Maurice (196= 4): =E2=80=9CPolitical Parties: their organization and activity in the mode= rn state=E2=80=9D. Methuen. </= span>11 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAACBNJREFUeJzt1r0NQWEYhuHnO34KBlBI7GIOidJWZw+N3gCmsIBGDhugkLz5kuua4C7vB= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAL5q1QGd2CU5= JVlXh9C9W5KxOgKAvhm43yyTbJIM1SF075HkXh0BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/9SqA7pwvGzni9lhaG1VnQLAZ9Nru= j7H/bm6AwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD68wb50QwEF90F4= gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />proportionality of political representation and the functioning= of the political system in general3. Based </spa= n> = on the referr= ed rationale, this essay argues for a specific reform to the Panamanian ele= ctoral system. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spac= ing:0.05pt">III. The Panamanian Electoral System =E2=80=93 The Legislature Panama, as well as all Latin Am= erican countries, has a presidential system, based on a traditional = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">majoritarian = =E2=80=98First Past the Post=E2=80=99 model. However, Panama is somehow nov= el on the composition of </p= >the legislature. A unicameral system of = 71 seats that are divided between single and multi-member districts. From the refer= red 71 seats, 26 legislators are elected from single-member districts and t= he remai= ning 45 from multi-member districts. Seats are allocated through simple maj= ority rule in single- districts and through a proportional formula in the multi-mem= ber districts. In practice, the reduced = size of the former imposes very high eff= ective barriers that tend to exclude small parties from legislative representation. Based on the referred electoral rules, historicall= y, the legislative representation in Panama has been characterized by high and persistent disproportionali= ty, as a result of a hybrid electoral system with a marked majority bias<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">4<= /span>. Altho= ugh this progressively decreased due to an increasing concentration of </sp= an> </sp= an>the vote and the party system durin= g the last fifteen years, Panama is still amongst the highest electoral </s= pan> </s= pan>malapportionment and disproportion= ality rated countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. IV. Analysis and = evidence =E2=80=93 Effects of Malapportionment and Dis= proportionality in Democracy 1. Malapportionment = According to Lijhpart, m= alapportionment happens when =E2=80=9Cthe districts have substantially une= qual voting popul= ations where malapportioned multimember districts have magnitudes that are = no commensurate with their voting populations=E2=80=9D5<spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">. He argues that it is especially hard to avoid the malapportionment = issue in plurality systems with single-member districts, suc= h as Panama, because equal apportionment requires that &= #xa0;relatively many small di= stricts be drawn with exactly equal electorates. He proposes that <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>malapportionment is eliminated when elec= tions are conducted with a nationwide upper tier as in Germany and Sweden. The underlying problem of the referre= d distortions is based on the rules governing the district=E2=80=99s design= . Unlike= what usually happens in most contemporary representative democracies, the = territorial basis of the legislative districts in Panama does not reside, nor in a = national constituency (in which only the = president of the republic is elected), n= or in the ten provinces and five indigenous regions, not even in <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >the 679 sub-districts that make up the n= ational territory today. This base relies, in an unusual way, on <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >3 LIJHPART, Arend </spa= n>(2012): Patterns of Democracy: =E2=80=9CGovernment Forms and Performan= ce in 36 countries=E2=80=9D. Yale University Press. 4PANAMA=E2=80=99<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">S= ELECOTRA= L TRIBUNAL Offic= ial Results of 2019 General Elections. Retrieved on February 13, = 2020 from: <a href=3D"https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electoral= es/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decorat= ion:none">https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-e= lectorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/</a><a href=3D"https://www= .tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1994-20= 19/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. <= /span> </a>5 LIJHPART <= /span>(2012). 12 = <img src=3D"d= ata:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSV= QICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACDpJREFUeJzt3bltAgEURdE/DJCORAF2S= iNIlIEIqIICyKjAFbgES2Q0QgFIECAYFrsGNn8NnFPBDV/2IgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= A4CGK7ICG6EfELCKq7BAabxkR0+wIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4= EUV2QHwbJ3RYly0y4/sDuCx6k09j+/BJrsDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAuIcrLYCm= mvxU3X3x+dsqW9kpvJdjeVjF13Cd3fHO2tkBANzotLvU0dtHnAw4/te2PGcnAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABw= rT/T+RjsWT2l5QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />the geographical boundaries= of the 81 districts (in which the mayors are elected), whose demographic <= /span> heterogeneity considerably restricts the room for maneuver, t= hereby distorting representation in the = National Assembly. A case to illustrate this contrasting phenomenon c= an be found in the 2019 elections, when Juan Vasquez, a Legislator from San Miguelito, one of the largest = districts, had to obtain ten times the votes than Petita Ayarza, a legislator from Guna Yala, one of the s= mallest. Vasquez obtained 33,393 votes from a multi-member district of 243,978 vo= ters and Ayarza obtained 3,725 votes from a single- = member district of 10,141 voter= s6. It is clear that votes in one district have more impact, thus result= ing &#= xa0;in malapportionment. This c= ontrast is prevalent all over the country and is disrupting the natural </s= pan> </s= pan>representat= ion that the electoral system should provide. </span= >2. Dispro= portionality There is a close relationship between elec= toral systems and party systems that depends, fundamentally, on the level of proportionality of the former, which determines its restri= ctive effects on the latter. As highlighted by the influential work of Taagepara a= nd Shugart, the magnitude of the districts constitutes the key or =E2=80=9Cdecisive=E2=80=9D variable of= disproportionality, even above the allocation formula, whose specific </sp= an> </sp= an>effects also= depend on the number of seats assigned in each constituency7</spa= n>. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>In Panama, disproportionality has tended= to benefit the first, second and third political forces, marginalizing or excluding most of the other par= ties of the National Assembly. The narrow and limited territorial link that curre= ntly characterizes legislative representation in Panama not only has advant= ages for specific legislators but can also become a constrai= nt for newcomers. This also contributes to the strengthening= and consolidation of traditional parties. If the seats where more proportional, le= gislators' careers would no longer depend only on their ability to solve sp= ecific problems in their respec= tive districts (specifically in single-member districts), but also on their= ability to add demands and rep= resent interests at a broader level, to inspect the executive and to legisl= ate. All actions that, as reflected by different surveys, are not being perceived b= y the majority of the population8 and are central for democratic governance. </s= pan> </s= pan>3. Effect on the =E2=80=98Effe= ctive=E2=80=99 Number of Parties In Latin America, the presidency is the big= gest political prize to be won and because only large parties have a chance to win = it, these said parties have a considerable advantage over smaller ones, whi= ch, in 6 </spa= n>PANAMA=E2=80=99S </= span>ELECOTRAL <= /span>TRIBUNAL <= /span>Official Results of 2019 General Elections. </spa= n> 7 <= /span>TAAGEPARA, Rein and S</s= pan>HUGART, Matthew (1989): =E2=80=9CDesigning electo= ral systems=E2=80=9D. University of California Irvine</spa= n>. Retrieved on February 12, 2020 fro<a href=3D"https://eschola= rship.org/content/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"tex= t-decoration:none">m: </a><a href=3D"https://escho= larship.org/content/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"t= ext-decoration:none">https://escholarship.org/content/qt2= 8t10044/qt28t10044.pdf</a><a href=3D"https://escholarship.org/conten= t/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:non= e">. </a>8 LATINOBAROMETRO, Informe 2018. Retr= ieved on February 10, 2020 fro<a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.= org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">m </a><a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" targ= et=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">http://www.l= atinobarometro.org/lat.jsp</a><a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.= org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. </a>13 <= span style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:12"><im= g src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2N= AAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBJJREFUeJzt1kENwkAARNF= pIBzIiiBYwQtXzKAACyhBBCcMkJa2OCBcyHbDewp+5jQJAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA0J= KudkAjdklOSUrtEJp3S3KuHQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8Ce62gFNOF63m7Hs5zHr2ikAfDZM0yOXw712B/ySQ/KNvk= z9Ks/YC2D55tdQOwEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAJbnDaIYEvp7CuGJAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624= " height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />consequence, has an effe= ct on legislative elections. This tendency is especially strong when the </= span> </= span>presidential election is decided = by plurality instead of majority runoff9, as is= the case of Panama. To have a legislature that truly repres= ents voters and not the strength of a presidential candidate is <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> vital for its legitimacy and for democracy. In Panama, since 1989 just = 3 parties have won the presidency, and naturally have suppor= ted the existing disproportionality. In consequence, the &= #xa0;majorities in the legisl= ature have come from those parties, and predominantly from 2 main parties <= /span> <= /span>(PRD and = Panamenista), just with the exception in 2009 of Cambio Democratico, which = through an alliance with the Panamenista Party won the election and had a majority = in the legislature. Several par= ties have failed to survive in the legislature due to the lack of a strong = presidential candidate. The number of effective parties illustrates this. Panama cu= rrently has 7 political parties registered and </spa= n>2 in the form= ation process. In contrast, based on the Laasko theory to determine the num= ber of parties that effectively hold power10, considering the number of seats = they receive, the country just has 3.68 effective parties. This number illustrates the cu= rrent inequality between the 3 largest parties and the rest. That is just unfair = competition, which is perpetuated by the current district magnitude framewo= rk. V. Recommendation =E2=80=93 Increase district m= agnitude <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Panama has the lo= west district magnitude average in Latin America11. This is creating </s= pan> </s= pan>malapportio= nment and disproportionality. A proposal to tackle these challenges is a na= tionwide district magnitude increase. T= he proposal argues for the election of the 71 legislators through 15 multi-= member districts divided betwee= n the 10 provinces and the 5 indigenous regions of the country and the elim= ination of single- member distr= icts. This electoral reform will entail that districts would go from the cu= rrent average of <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">56,000 voters per legislative district to an average of 200,000. <= /span> Malapport= ionment would be significantly reduced as the unequal relationship between = the percentage <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">of citizens residing in each legislative district and the percentage= of elected legislators in it will be more </= p>equal between the= different districts. This would entail the decrease of distortions in the = average = number of voters for each legislator among the different districts that div= ide the national territory, such as the one described between San Miguelito and Gun= a Yala. Additionally, disproportionality = would decline substantially as a fair pr= oportion between votes and the legislative seats obtained by each party will be achieved contrasting the c= urrent context that is leading towards the over- representation of some parties and the under-representati= on of others with respect to its effective electoral weight. This approach would pr= oduce more balanced effects on legislative representation, the party system and the= legitimacy of the political system. 9SHUGART, Matthew and C<= /span>AREY, John (1992): =E2=80=9CPresidents and Asse= mblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics=E2=80=9D. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">University of California, San Diego. </span= >10 LAAKSO, Markku= ; and TAGGAPERA, Rein (1979): =E2=80=9CThe =E2= =80=9CEffective=E2=80=9D Number of Parties: =E2=80=9CA Measure with Applica= tion to West Europe=E2=80=9D. 11 PANAMA=E2=80=99</span= >S EL= ECOTRAL TRIBUNAL Official Results of 2019 General Elections. Retrieved on Februar= y 13, 2020 from: <a href=3D"https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-ele= ctorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-d= ecoration:none">https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eve= ntos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/</a><a href=3D"https= ://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1= 994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. </a>14 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The increase in th= e magnitude of the districts would bring the legislators closer to the gene= ral interests <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">of the nation, wi= thout cutting them off from their constituents and extending, in passing, t= he &#x= a0;autonomy, functions, and lev= el of responsibilities of the members of the National Assembly. But = = above all, the legislators would stop = representing mainly localist interests related to the particular <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >concerns and dema= nds of their small constituencies and would also have incentives to reduce = the extension of clientelism and represent more general inte= rests related to the problems of the provinces, </sp= an>the regions = and the nation. From the perspective of the electorate, can= didates for the legislature would be recruited on a more &= #xa0;diverse and broader soci= odemographic basis, which would have a positive impact on the <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">competitiveness of th= eir selection, and on the average level of their training, preparation and = personal experience. These enhancements will directly tackle= the ongoing criticism towards the quality of </span= >legislators, the party system and wil= l improve the governance framework. VI. </p= >Critique - I= ncrease on electoral campaign costs = A criticism that this policy could have = is that it would have a negative impact on the cost of electoral <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >campaigns, excluding fewer wealthy candi= dates from the races. However, the increase in electoral spending is due to factors beyond the demographic= size of the districts, such as allowing private funding in campaigns or the period= of elections, so it can be effectively limited by specific reforms on </sp= an> financing an= d campaign ceilings. 15 </span= ><img src=3D"data:image/png= ;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAA= AAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACCxJREFUeJzt1s1pAmEYhdE7OFkEIa5cTy3WkB5swgYswy= qycS9TRxoQJOBi8KeFLJSXT8+p4FldbgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAG3oqgOAYuv94uMy+86t+6pO4YGuGafdaqzOAJ6jrw4Aih2Pf9N8+ZPJHry= W86m6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABeTVcd0IjPJEOSv= jqE5p2S/FZHANA2h+R/hiTbJIvqEJp3SLKpjgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAeGd3vlcTjYstPQYAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 16 - 32 Interpreting the Justiciability of GATT=E2=80= =99s Article XXI: Security Exceptions</s= pan>=EF=80= =AA =EF=81=B9<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:14pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">*Autor para Co= rrespondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" targe= t=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailt= o:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= anacarolina@illueca.com </a>Recibido: 14 de junio de 2021 <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 _________________________= ___________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo analiza la justiciabilidad= del art=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles A= duaneros y Comercio. Para ello, se analiza: (i) el contenido del art=C3=ADc= ulo XXI; (ii) su car=C3=A1cter auto- justiciable; (iii) los = trabajos preparatorios que conducen a su redacci=C3=B3n; (iv) las discusion= es llevadas a cabo en el Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio/Organ= izaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio; (v) las consideraciones de la Corte Internaciona= l de Justicia; (vi) las posturas acad=C3=A9micas; </= span>(vii) el est=C3=A1ndar de revisi= =C3=B3n; (viii) la pr=C3=A1ctica de los Estados; (ix) las estrategias para = prevenir el abuso = del Derecho; y (x) consideraciones finales. = 0;Palabras clave: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </s= pan>General Agreement on Tariffs and T= rade, World Trade Organization, Article XXI, security exceptions, self-judging. Abstract: This paper analyzes the justiciability of Article XXI of the General Agr= eement on Trade and Tariffs. To this end, it delves into: (i) the content of Articl= e XXI; (ii) its self-judging character; (iii) the preparatory works that led to its= factual wording; (iv) the discussions conducted before the General = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Agreement on Tr= ade and Tariffs and the World Trade Organization system; (v) the Internatio= nal &#= xa0;=EF=80=AA</spa= n>Ensayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9CInternational Trade Law=E2=80=9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en = Derecho de la Universidad de Nueva York. </spa= n>=EF=81=B9Licenciada en Derecho y Cienci= as Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Summa Cum Laude); Certificado en </span= > Coope= raci=C3=B3n y Soluci=C3=B3n de Conflictos (Teacher=E2=80=99s College, Colum= bia University); Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho (New York = University). Mediadora= id=C3=B3nea en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, y consultora y obeservado= ra electoral a nivel local e internacional. Miembro de la Junta Directiva = Global de Generaci=C3=B3n Democracia del Instituto Republicano Internaciona= l. 16 <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;b= ase64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAA= AlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81= wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" = style=3D"position:absolute" />Court of Justice considerations; (vi) scholarly wri= tings; (vii) the standard of review; (viii) the state practice; (ix) the strategies for preventing legal= abuses; and (x) it offers some final considerations. Keywords: Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio, Organi= zaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio, art=C3=ADculo XXI, excepciones relativas a la seguridad, auto-justiciabl= e. &#x= a0;= I. Introduction </span= >The General Agreement on Trade and Ta= riffs (GATT)1 embodies exceptions to the obligations and principles of the agreement. Specifically, Art= icle XXI deals with security exceptions and reads as follows: = =E2=80=9CNothing in this Agreement shall be construed (a) to require any contract= ing party to furnish any information the disclosure of which it considers contrary = to its essential security interests; or (b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action which= it considers <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">necessary for the protection of its essential security interests </sp= an> (i) relating= to fissionable materials or the materials from which they are derived; </s= pan> </s= pan>(ii) relating to the traffic in ar= ms, ammunition and implements of war and to such traffic in other goods and materia= ls as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military = establishment; <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">(iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in international relat= ions; or (c) to prevent any contracting party from taking an= y action in pursuance of its obligations under the United Nations Charter for the m= aintenance of international pea= ce and security.=E2=80=9D2 This provision is treated separa= tely from the general exceptions contained in Article XX of the same </span= > <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">instrument with an evident differentiation purpose. Article XXI de= als with security exceptions, perhaps the most subjective an= d sensitive issue nations have jurisdiction over. This article has been </s= pan> subject of = debate, particularly over its self-judging character and justiciability. Am= ong the legal <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">questions raised = is whether Article XXI exceptions are subject to the GATT dispute settlemen= t = 0;mechanism, enshrined in Artic= le XXIII. Those who claim its justiciability elaborate on the standard </sp= an> </sp= an>of review th= at a panel should apply when determining violations of GATT obligations. Th= e jurisp= rudence of the GATT/WTO does not provide a definitive answer to these quest= ions3. Since the establishment of the GATT, members have brought few complaints = regarding measures justified under Article XXI but no binding report has been adopt= ed. Under the original GATT dispute 1 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (G= ATT), Geneva (October 30, 1947). 2 GATT, art. XXI. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;3 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">LINDSAY, Peter (2003): =E2=80=9CThe Ambiguity of GATT Article XXI: Subtle= Success or Rampant Failure=E2=80=9D, Duke Law Journal, <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt"> Vol. 52, pp. 1278-1279. 17 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/= png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhk= iAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACMRJREFUeJzt3TFqVWEUhdF9HiFNmhCEdJmAc0nhFKw= sMxetHUgK7VNobWUrlipIQjyZwAOfCPnveazV/s0uP7hcTgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= BMUqsHDPEyydsk56uHMN7HJDerRwAAAAAAAAAAAAAArOAnhv/U3RdJrlbvAIAj8Zjka1X9WD1ky= 05WDzgC10nerx4BAMegu39W1askt6u3bNlu9QAAAP6NgAMAGEbAAQAMI+AAAIYRcAAAwwg4AIBh= BBwAwDACDgBgGAEHADCMSwwH6O5Kcpr9p8d23X3/zJOAgaqqk3R3r54CW/Y7yZ/VI7ZOwB3mKsm= bJGf73rr7+zPvAQbq7sckH5Lcrd4CG/ZQVV9Wj9g6AXeYyySvk7zY97jb+RIN/F1331fVp6p6t3= oLMJvyAAAYRsABAAwj4AAAhhFwAADDCDgAgGEEHADAMAIOAGAYAQcAMIyAAwAYxiWGw/zq7s9Jz= lcPAUZ7SPJt9QgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgmSdX8TS6U5jkwAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />settlement system, </spa= n>the panels= =E2=80=99 jurisdiction was curtailed by a requirement of consensus among me= mber &= #xa0;S= tates in order to issue a binding report. With the establishment of the Wor= ld Trade Organization (WTO) and the adoption of the Dispute Settlement Understandi= ng (DSU), a new dispute settlement = mechanism gave panels more inde= pendence and much less power to members to block the reports. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Only on one occasion has an Article XXI comp= laint been brought under the new system, and it was settled before a panel could issue a decision. = = The lack of a d= efinitive GATT/WTO panel interpretation on the justiciability of measures i= nvoked under the security exceptions has left a loophole to = be filled by alternative interpretations. The purpose = 0;of this paper is to provide g= uidance on the question of justiciability of Article XXI, security exceptio= ns. &#= xa0;The = paper analyzes the preparatory works of Article XXI, along with its subsequ= ent interpretation by member States in GATT/WTO forums. Additionally, consideration= s by the International Court of Justice will be provided. Academic opinions and relevant State practice re= garding Article XXI will complement the discussion. <= /p>II. = Artic= le XXI: A Self-Judging Clause According to Stephan Schill and Robyn Briese, self-judging clauses are =E2= =80=9Cprovisions in international leg= al instruments by means of which States retain the right to escape or derog= ate from an international oblig= ation based on unilateral considerations and based on their subjective appr= eciation of whether the circums= tances required for the invocation of the clause exist=E2=80=9D4</span= >. For Schill= and Briese, self-judging clauses possess two identifiable characteristics: they pr= ovide a unilateral opt-out from an international </s= pan>obligation = and they give the invoking State the discretion of determining whether the = elements for the opt-out have been fulfilled5</span= >. Schill and Briese follow the rules of interpretation of the Vi= enna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), specifically = Article 31(1), when asserting that self-judging </sp= an>clauses should clearly state that a= Contracting Party will retain the discretion to decide the scope and </spa= n> </spa= n>applicability of the provision (for = example, by using the words =E2=80=9Cif the State considers=E2=80=9D)</span= >6. = = The language of Article XXI fav= ors the conclusion that it is a self-judging provision. Since it is an </sp= an> </sp= an>exception, its invocation provides = an opt-out of GATT obligations. In addition, it uses the word <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">=E2=80=9C<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">nothing</sp= an>=E2=80=9D, and the wording of its sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) provide for t= he article=E2=80=99s invocation when a contracting party considers it necessary</sp= an>7. The content of this provision neither signals the = existence of an objective standard of review nor explicitly provides jurisdiction t= o the GATT/WTO for determining the righteousness of the measure. In contrast, Artic= le XX=E2=80=99s chapeau, which enshrines an <= /p>objective standa= rd of review, does provide the WTO with jurisdiction to examine various asp= ects of = an invocation under such exceptions, such as the necessity of the measure</= span>8. &#= xa0;4</span= >SCHILL, Stephan &= BRIESE, Robyn (2009): =E2=80=9CIf the State Considers: Self-Judg= ing Clauses in International Dispute Settlement=E2=80=9D, Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 13, p. 92. </spa= n> 5 <= /span>=C3=8Ddem, p. 68. 6 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 69-70. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;7 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">ALFORD, Roger P. (2001): =E2=80=9CThe Self-</s= pan>Judging WTO Security Exception=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">UTAH Law Review, No. 3, p. 759. </s= pan> 8 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1282. = 18 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAA= AANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQB= D6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQH= A2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" al= t=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The self-judging character of Article XXI re= mains subject of academic and legal debate. This paper will offer contrasting positions and arguments re= garding the justiciability of the provision and the question of its self-judging character. III. Preparatory Works <= /p>Preparatory work= s, as supplementary means of interpretation9, are= relevant when dealing with the ambiguity surrounding the justiciability and self-= judging character of Article XXI, and the implausibility of resolving the question through the ordinary me= aning of the clause. In general, preparatory works provide useful insight in cases of ambiguity or obscuri= ty of legal provisions. Ultimat= ely, the analysis of the preparatory works of Article XXI will afford a rea= sonable interpretation of the a= rticle=E2=80=99s object and purpose as conceived by the GATT=E2=80=99s Cont= racting Parties. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">As evidenced b= y the first drafts of the GATT, the United States=E2=80=99 State Department= Proposal10 and the London D= raft11, States recognized the need to establish exceptions to the obliga= tions and general = principles th= at were going to be agreed upon in the new trade organization. The GATT 194= 7 eventually <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">separated general exceptions (Article XX) from security exceptions (Ar= ticle XXI); however it wasn=E2=80=99t originally conceived that way. In the New Yor= k Draft of Charter12, these exceptions were all included under =E2=80=9Cgeneral exceptions=E2=80=9D, as= follows: =E2=80=9CArticle 37 <= /span> <= /span>General exceptions to cha= pter V <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Subject to the re= quirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">would constitute a m= eans of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on in= ternational trade, nothing in Chapter V shall be construed t= o prevent the adoption or enforcement by = any Member of mea= sures: (= a) &#x= a0;Necessary to protect public = morals; (b) For the purpose of protecting human, animal or pl= ant life or health, if correspo= nding domestic safeguards under similar conditions exist in the importing <= /span> <= /span>country; (c) </sp= an>Relating to fissionable materials; = = (d) Relating t= o the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such = <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">traffic in other goods and materials as is carried on for the purpo= se of supplying a military establishment; &= #xa0;9 </spa= n>VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969)= , Art. 32. 10 UNITED S= TATES OF AMERICA, DEPARTMENT OF STATE: =E2=80=9CProposals for Expansion o</= span>f World Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D (November 1945). <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;11 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: = =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of </= span>the First Session= of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/33 (December 1946). <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 12 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:= =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > the Draf= ting Committee of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/34 (March 1947= ). 19 <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;b= ase64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAA= AlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOy= WgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />(e) </span= >In time of war= or other emergency in international relations, relating to the <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> protection of the e= ssential security interests of a Member; (f) <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Relating to the importation or exportation o= f gold or silver; = (g) <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Necessary to secu= re compliance with laws or regulations which are not = ;inconsi= stent with the provisions of Chapter V, such as, those relating to customs = enforcem= ent, deceptive practices, and the protection of patents, trade marks and </= span> </= span>copyrights; (h) Relating to the products of prison labour; <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> (=E2=80=A6) = = (k) Undertaken = in pursuance of obligations under the United Nations Charter for the </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">maintenance or= restoration of international peace and security.=E2=80=9D13 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;If the article had remained= as originally presented, any measure otherwise prohibited and justified </= span> </= span>under sub-paragraphs (c), (d), (e= ), and (k) would also need to comply with the conditions imposed by = = the article=E2= =80=99s chapeau. In other words, measures justified under security exceptions cou= ld not have been <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">applied in a m= anner that would constitute arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination betwe= en countries <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">where the same conditions prevail, or in a manner which constituted a = disguised restriction on international trade14</spa= n>. The only difference between the chapeau of Article 37, and th= e current text of Article XX of the GATT is insignificant. <= /span> The United States delegation proposed an amendment to the New= York Draft Charter, which suggested the exclusion of items = (c), (d), (e), (j) and (k) from Article 37, stating that this article relat= ed only to Chapter V, and their inclusion in a new article t= o be placed =E2=80=9Ctoward the end of the Charter <= /span>(=E2=80=A6) [making] these items= general exceptions to the entire charter=E2=80=9D<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >15. <= /span> <= /span>When subm= itting the proposal for the consideration of the commission discussing the = general = exceptions, the Chairman himself stated that the proposal intended to make = those sub-paragraphs apply to the Charter as a whole and not only to Chapter V</spa= n>16. During the discussion of these security <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">exceptions, the Netherlands delegate asked for clarification as to wha= t meaning would be given to the phrases emergency in inter= national relations and essential security interests</span= >, feeling th= ey could create a large loophole17. The United States=E2=80=99 (US) delegate att= empted to address the previous concerns, feeling an obligation to do so as they had originally drafted the= text of those provisions. He argued that the right or need of a Member to determine what their security i= nterests are and to take action accordingly should be unquestionable. In explaining what would constitute = an emergency in international relations, the US delegate gave as an example the res= trictions to imports and exports by his government during = W= orld War II. More significantly, he explained that during the drafting effo= rts the US recognized a 13 =C3= =8Ddem. 14 PAUW= ELYN, Joost H.B. et = al. (2016): International Trade Law <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">(W= olters Kluwer, 3rd ed.), p. 419. 15 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, UNITED STATE= S DELEGATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS <= /span>ECONOMIC AND SOC= IAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CProposal submitted to the Second Session of the Prepa= ratory Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D, = E/PC/T/W/23 (May 1974), p. 5 (=E2=80=9CUS Proposal=E2=80= =9D). 16 UNITED NATIONS, ECON= OMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond Session of the Preparato= ry Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Employment, 25th mtg. of = Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/25 (July 1947), p. 39. </span= >17 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSeco= nd Session of the Preparatory Committee of the U.N. Conference o= n Trade and Employment, 33rd mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/33 (July= 1947), p. 19 (=E2=80=9CVerbatium of 33rd Meeting<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">=E2=80=9D). 20 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUa= B99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" widt= h=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">need for balance. The exceptions could not be too tight as to prohibi= t measures =E2=80=9Cneeded purely for security reasons=E2=80=9D nor too broad as to= permit the pretext of security to allow =E2=80=9Canything under the </span= > </span= >sun=E2=80=9D18. Continuing the discussion = of the US proposal, the commission then proceeded to consider the <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">introductory paragraph for the new article. The introductory text for= the new article disposed: =E2=80=9CNothing in this Charter shall be construed to r= equire any Member=E2=80=A6=E2=80=9D19. The Chairman opened the <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>floor for discussion on the issue of the= possibility of reviewing measures invoked under these exceptions. Special weight is given to the remark= s by the delegation who introduced the amendment. The US delegate stated that a Member who invokes such ex= ceptions would not violate the Charter, but if that unilateral action affected another Member =E2=80=9Cth= at member would have the right to seek redress of some kind under Article 35=E2=80=9D20= . Article 35 = of the New York Draft referred to dispute settlement within the organization. The Australian representativ= e suggested the inclusion of either a paragraph or a note that would further clar= ify that the security exceptions did not conflict with Article <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 3521= . <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">After receiving assurances by the US delegation that the lack of conf= lict was =E2=80=9Cperfectly clear=E2=80=9D22, the Australian representative withdrew his reservation. S= ubsequently, the proposal was approved. The content of Article XXI as we know it today was settled in the = Geneva Final Act of October 30, 1947 and it has never been amended23. Needless t= o say, the current language of the article is almost identical <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> to the US=E2=80=99 p= roposal. After examining the di= scussions leading up to the adoption of this article, it is possible to ass= ert the = following conclusions. The decision to relocate the security exceptions fro= m the general provision to a separate article gives us stron= g indications that the Contracting Parties wished these exceptions to </spa= n> = be granted a = special treatment. The parties also recognized their individual right to de= termine what <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">constitutes a secu= rity interest while at the same time asserting that the article would be ju= sticiable. IV. Article XXI Discussions in the GATT/WT= O System Very few cases have been subject to a formal d= ispute settlement procedure under Article XXI </span= >exceptions. Even though GATT/WTO pane= ls have not been able to issue binding jurisprudence, it is relevant to reproduce some of the discussions = that took place around those formal complaints. Additionally, further recollection of the opinions of memb= er States at council meetings regarding the scope of the article will provide impor= tant insight. During the Third Session of the GATT, Czechosl= ovakia requested a decision under Article XXIII </sp= an>regarding whether the US had failed= to meet its GATT obligations by issuing export licenses24= . The = = US=E2=80=99 defense was based on Artic= le XXI, arguing the export licenses were being issued to products they </sp= an> </sp= an>18 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 20-22. 19 </spa= n>US Proposal (1974). <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 20 Verbatium of 33rd Meeting <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">(1= 947), p. 26-27. 21 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 27-28= . = 22 =C3=8Ddem. = 23 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, SECRETARIAT (2012): =E2=80=9CGATT= Analytical Index =E2=80=93 Guide to GATT Law and = ;Practice=E2=80= =9D (=E2=80=9CAnalytical Index=E2=80=9D). 24 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REQUEST FOR A DECISION UNDER = ART. XXIII BY CZECHOSLOVAKIA: =E2=80=9CUnited States <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GATT/CP.3/33 (May 1949). 21 <spa= n style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:19"><img s= rc=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAA= ABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACcRJREFUeJzt3bGKXGUYxvHnmz= nGVSsxkCADVumsFUvvwMobUHMN3oid3oFtihQpvAdBBZvIgmAlkmSTzc5509qsTGTJN+/w+9Vf8= ZR/zineBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAjsSYPaCJW0nuJNnMHkJ7F0n+mj0CgN6W2QOauJvkfpL3Zg+hvZ+T/DB7BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAHQ1Zg84BVU1knyY5J3ZWwCguTXJn2OMi9lDjtkye8ApO= D8/P9vtdt8l+XT2FgDorKqe7vf7r5L8NHvLMRNwN2C326WqPhhj3J29BQCae7Isy63ZI47dZvYA= AABej4ADAGhGwAEANCPgAACaEXAAAM0IOACAZgQcAEAzAg4AoBkBBwDQjEsMB6iqO0m+SHJ2zZM= lSa3r+vubWwXAKamqR+5/JkleXF5e/jF7xLFzzP4AVfVJkgdJbs/eAsDJ+miMIVw4iF+oAADNCD= gAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNOKV1mGdV9UuS92cPAeA0jTEuZ= 28AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOBfxuwBp6KqliTL7B0A0FwleTnGWGcPOWaC4wZU1Tb= Jl0k+m70FAJp7keT7JL/OHnLMBNzN2Cb5PMnXs4cAQGdV9WSM8TAC7j9tZg8AAOD1CDgAgGYEHA= BAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwgKp6N8m9JG9d82S7rus+yW9vbhVAf= 2OMl0mez97BUXmW5J/ZI46dgDvMx0keJLl93YPNxsdMgP/hxyTfjDH+nj0EOlEdAADNCDgAgGYE= HABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwmH1VPU1yNnsIwCkZYzxPUrN3QDc= C7jCP13X9drvdvj17CMApubq6erwsy8XsHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAABwA14BILZoqU31spUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />considered could poten= tially be used by a military establishment25. When the issue was discuss= ed with = the members, the Czech delegate protested that because the US=E2=80=99 inte= rpretation of =E2=80=9Cwar materials=E2=80=9D was </= span>so broad there was no way to know= what the term actually covered26. The British delegate argued that </sp= an> </sp= an>each State =E2=80=9Cmust have the l= ast resort on questions relating to its own security=E2=80=9D and, as such,= the &= #xa0;Czechoslovakian complain= t should be dismissed27. The members voted on the= complaint and the majority found that the US had not failed= to carry out its GATT obligations. In 1961 Ghana considered th= e Portuguese=E2=80=99 presence in Angola as a threat to African peace, and = = justifie= d the establishment of a boycott on Portuguese goods under Article XXI (b) = (iii). Specifically, Ghana=E2=80=99s interpretation of the article entailed that ea= ch country was to be the =E2=80=9Csole judge=E2=80=9D of what was <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'"> </= p>necessary for its security interests, an= d added that the threat which prompted those measures could be either perceived or apparent28</sp= an>. In this = instance, the issue of GATT jurisdiction over Article XXI claims was not raised29. Sweden, in 1976, placed a global import quota for= certain footwear30 justified under Article XXI. = At the time, Sweden was facing a decrease in domestic produc= tion and determined that the maintenance = of a minimum domestic production capacit= y in t= he footwear industry was =E2=80=9Cindispensable in order to secure the provision of= essential products necessary to meet basic needs in case of war or other <= /span> emergency= in international relations=E2=80=9D31. Even thou= gh Sweden offered to consult bilaterally with </span= >affected members, and despite the quo= ta was in place for only two years, this situation exemplifies the <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>complexities of national security excep= tions. As Raj Bhala has accurately stated, =E2=80=9C[t]here are cases in </= span> </= span>which comm= ercial and national security interests are so intertwined that a bright lin= e between the two interests can=E2=80=99t be drawn=E2=80=9D32. This is just one = example of how almost anything can be justified, rightfully or wrongfully, as essential for national secur= ity. &= #xa0;The European Communities= (EC), Canada, and Australia applied a total ban on imports from <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >Argentina after the 1982 Falklands/Malvi= nas conflict. They justified the measure under Article XXI and said the exercise of rights under this exce= ption was not subject to notification, justification, or approval33 by other members. Argentina argued = that a failure to notify trade restrictions was not only a violation of fundamental GATT obligations but a= lso a lack of respect for all Contracting Parties34. The Brazilian delegate sided with Argentina and s= tated that while every member has the right to 25 GENER= AL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REPLY BY THE UNITED STATES DELEGATION: <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">, GATT/CP.3/38 (June 1949). <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">26= GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, THIRD SE= SSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Twenty</s= pan>-Second Meeting=E2=80=9D, GATT/CP. 3/SR.22 (June 1949). </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">27 =C3=8Ddem, p. 7= . 28 GENERAL AGR= EEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NINETEENTH SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> PARTIES= : =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Twelfth Session=E2=80=9D, SR.19/12 (Decemb= er 1961), p. 196. 29 SCHOLEMA= NN, Hannes L. & OHLHOFF, Stefan (1999): =E2=80=9CConstitutionalization and Dispute Settlement in the WTO= : = National Security as an Issue of Competence=E2=80=9D, A= merican Journal of International Law, Vol. 93, pp. 424, 436. </sp= an> 30 Analytical Index (2012)<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= , p. 603. 31 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TAR= IFFS AND TRADE, NOTIFICATION BY THE SWEDISH DELEGATION: </= span>=E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Sweden =E2=80=93 Import Restrictions on Certain Footwear=E2=80= =9D, L/4250 (November 1975), p. 3. 32 <= /span>BHALA, Raj (1998): =E2=80=9C</span= >National Security and International Trade Law: W= hat the GATT Says, and what the United States Does=E2=80=9D, University of Pennsylvani= a Journal of International Economic Law, Vol 19, pp. 263, 273. = <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">33 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT O= N TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CTrade Restrictions Affecting Argenti= na Applied for Non-economic Reasons=E2=80=9D, C/M/157 (June 1982= ), p. 10. 34 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 11-12. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">22 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64= ,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSF= lzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/W= ojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D= "808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />determine what their essential secur= ity interests are, justification had to be provided in cases where no </spa= n> </spa= n>involvement of security interests we= re apparent35. Although a panel was not establish= ed, this discussion led the Contracting Parties to adopt the= Decision concerning article XXI of the General Agreement36</span= >. The </span= > </span= >document provi= des that when a measure is taken under Article XXI, Contracting Parties mus= t be notified, subject only to the exceptions in Article XXI= (a). However, it still left significant loopholes. = It neith= er provided an objective standard by which a panel could evaluate an Articl= e XXI claim nor defined =E2=80=9Creasons of security=E2=80= =9D. It was also of a temporary character, until the Contracting Parties </= span> decided to= make a formal interpretation of the article. More significantly, it was a = missed opportunity for members = to provide clarification on the issue of justiciability. Instead, they dete= rmined that all <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">contracting par= ties affected by an Article XXI measure retained their full rights under th= e GATT. = Among those rights remains to bring forth a complaint to a dispute settleme= nt body and receive a determination on the righteousness of = the measure. The document, therefore, seems to echo the &= #xa0;position taken by the me= mbers during the preparatory works regarding Article XXI not being in </spa= n> </spa= n>conflict with= Article XXIII. In 1985, the US imposed a trade embargo aga= inst Nicaragua37, prompting the latter to bring a= complai= nt before the GATT Council. Nicaragua asked the Council to condemn the emba= rgo and request the US to revok= e the measures on the grounds that these were taken as a coercion tool for = = political reasons38</s= pan>. The Nicaraguan representative added that it was =E2=80=9Cab= surd to suggest that Nicaragua, a small and underdeveloped = country, could pose a threat to the national security of one of the most </= span> powerful countries in the world=E2=80=9D, and further noted th= at there was currently no armed conflict between </s= pan>them39.= The US justified the embargo based on Article XXI (b) (iii) and sustained = that proper notification of the measure was provided to the members. The US rejecte= d the GATT=E2=80=99s jurisdiction to judge political or security issues, reinforcing their claim that the = organization could not approve or disapprove measures deemed to be necessary for the safeguard of national= security interests40. In re= gards to the jurisdiction of the GATT, Australia supported the US=E2=80=99 = challenge and added that the ap= propriate forum for discussions of security issues was the United Nations S= ecurity Council41. The EC ap= proached the question differently, by simply stating that Article XXI of GA= TT was self-judging. However, they also noted that in exercising this discretion, m= embers should act responsibly, and with = discernment and m= oderation, in order to avoid arbitrary invocations42. Nineteen out of th= e forty-three <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">countries who addressed the Panel supported the self-judging interpre= tation43. In contrast, Poland and 35 =C3=8Ddem, p. 12. </p= >36 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE: =E2= =80=9CDecision concerning article XXI of the General </span= >Agreement=E2=80=9D, L= /5426 (December 1982). 37 UNITED STATE= S OF AMERICA, Executive Order No. 12513, (05/01/1985). </= span>38 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRAD= E, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States - Trade measures affecting </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Ni= caragua=E2=80=9D, C/M/188 (June 1985), p. 2. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">39 =C3=8Ddem, p. 3.= 40 =C3=8Ddem, p= p. 4-5. 41 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 12. 42 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 14. 43 ALFORD (2001), p. 713. </= span>23 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB/1JREFUeJzt2MEJAlEQBcFeFEEv5mAo5h+CYA5eRTACQdjD8KEqgmZOjykAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAftumARVyqW3WYDmF5r+o5HQHA2= o7TAYu4VvfqPB3C8h4ZcADs5AP3n6065V7s96ne0xEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACv5AsAiBhzfolD7AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"62= 4" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />C= hile rejected the argument that the GATT was not competent to know and deci= de Article XXI claims44. There were also significant arguments = against the self-judging character of the article. The Cuban delegate, siding with = Nicaragua, stressed that whenever invoking Article XXI, parties should be <= /span> <= /span>required to justify it with rele= vant facts in order to prevent abuses of the system45. Similarly, but </= span> </= span>providing more specificity, India= sustained that a member invoking Article XXI (b) (iii) should provide </sp= an> </sp= an>a nexus between the measure taken a= nd its security interest46. Brazil further noted that the invocation </s= pan> </s= pan>of the article =E2=80=9Cshould only be e= xercised in light of other international obligations such as those assumed = = under th= e UN charter=E2=80=9D47. A panel was established to decide on the US trade embar= go against Nicaragua, but its terms of = reference preclud= ed it from examining or judging the validity or motivation for the invocati= on of Article XXI (b) (iii) by the US48<span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">. These narrow terms were the result of a compromise, given the US=E2= =80=99 o= pposition to the establishment of a panel if this provision was to be evalu= ated. Nonetheless, the panel still made some observations about the article. They s= uggested that even tough trade embargoes are = contrary to GATT principles of certain= ty and trade liberalization, the purpose of the article was not <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = to make parties forego measures needed t= o protect their essential security interests49. The most relevant </sp= an> </sp= an>contribution= of the report was a statement stressing that a party invoking a measure un= der Article XXI should carefully weigh its security needs a= gainst the need to maintain stable trade relations50. Despite the report was not adopted51, the panel implied the standard of rev= iew under which an Article XXI = measure would be analyzed. They would consider if the member =E2=80=9Ccaref= ully=E2=80=9D, perhaps reasonably, weighted the balance of their alleged national security interest being = protected and the trade relationship with the member subjected to the measure. The = panel=E2=80=99s view of a =E2=80=9Ccareful=E2=80=9D balance when <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">deciding the measu= re was the echo of statements of a significant number of States who conside= red &#= xa0;that= the invocation of the article should be made with utmost prudence, especia= lly when invoked by a developed country. &= #xa0;The first and only compl= aint brought to a WTO panel has been United States-The Cuban Liberty and </= span> </= span>Democratic Solidarity Act. The EC= filed a request for consultations after the US adopted the Cuban <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Liberty and Democ= ratic Solidarity Act52. The US, following their same argument as in prev= ious cases, <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">44 <= /p>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TA= RIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States - Trade measures= affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, C/M/188 (June 19= 85), p. 8. 45 = =C3=8Ddem, p. 5. 46 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 11. 47 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 7-8. = 48 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, CO= UNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Trade measures affecting= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Nicaragua - Panel established under Article XXIII:2=E2=80=9D, C= /M/196 (Apr. 1986). 49 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, PANEL REPORT (1986): =E2=80=9C</sp= an>United States =E2=80=93 T= rade measures affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, = L/6053, = =E2=81=8B5.16. 50 =C3=8Ddem. = <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">51 </sp= an>The panel ultimatel= y concluded that, as it couldn=E2=80=99t analyze this provision, they could= not find the US neither non- compliant nor compliant with its = GATT obligations. See =C3=ADdem, =E2=81=8B5.3. 52 = WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, REQUEST FOR THE ESTABLI= SHMENT OF A PANEL BY THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND T= HEIR MEMBER STATES: =E2=80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty an= d Democratic Solidarity Act=E2=80=9D, WT/DS38/2 (October 1996)= . = 24 </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jENAgEQAMElgeJpMEKHfwsoeAeYwAHt5ciMg= i23AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4D9dpgOWeFSv6jYdwnqf6j0dAcBu1+mAJe7VszqmQ1jvzMABAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAP30BKAkD775/hCYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />i= nvoked Article XXI to justify its measure53. This was th= e first opportunity for a panel to fully analyze </s= pan>Article XXI and issue a binding re= port. The EC did not make counterarguments to the invocation of <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = the provision54; perhaps because they= had been on the other side of the dispute before and used the <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">same exception to ju= stify several measures. The parties settled the case. = 0;V= . Considerations by the International Court of Jus= tice It is worth mentioning how another dispute settlement body, the Internati= onal Court of Justice (ICJ), has understood Article XXI in light of similar nationa= l security exception clauses in bilateral treaties. = Nicaragu= a brought a complaint to the ICJ alleging, inter alia, that the trade embargo im= posed upon them by the US was i= n open violation of the obligations acquired under the bilateral treaty on = = Freedom, Commerce, and Navigati= on (FCN). The FCN contained a clause that stated that "the present Treaty shall not preclude the applicati= on of measures ... (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Party for the maintenance or restoration = of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests." The Court = compared the FCN=E2=80=99s security exceptions with those = in the GATT. They manifested that the GATT=E2=80=99s Article= XXI contained the phrase it [the member] considers necessary, and the FCN, on the ot= her hand, did not make reference =E2=80=9Cto what the party =E2=80=98consid= ers &#= xa0;necessary=E2=80=99 for that= purpose=E2=80=9D55. In its decision, the ICJ found the trade embargo vi= olated the FCN and that the sec= urity exception clause was not self-judging. The Court also implied, </span= >au co= ntraire, that Article <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">XXI of the GATT= was self-judging. In the Oil P= latforms Case56, the ICJ addressed a controversy dealing preliminarily w= ith a similar <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">exception under a FCN treaty. In this regard, the Court maintained th= e opinion that such provisions were not self-judging and therefore subject of an = objective standard of review57. However, in thi= s case the ICJ did not offer any analogy with the GATT secur= ity exceptions clause. It is possible to infer from the ICJ= =E2=80=99s statements that security exceptions are justiciable in the cases= concerned (Oil Platforms and Nicaragua). However, while ack= nowledging the justiciability of such exceptions under FCN treaties, the ICJ clearl= y distinguished Article XXI of the GATT and inferred its self-judging character. VI. &#= xa0;Academic Debate 53 WORLD T= RADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1996): =E2=80=9CUnite= d States - The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act - Request by th= e European Communities and their member States for the establishment of </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal">a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/24. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;54 ORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT B= ODY (1997): =E2=80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= and Demo= cratic Solidarity Act - Request by the European Communities and their membe= r States for the establishment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/26. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 55 </span= > MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES IN AND AGAINST NICARAGUA <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal">(Nicar. v. U.S.), &= #xa0;Internat= ional Court of Justice. Judgment, June 27, 1986, I.C.J. Rep. 14, <sp= an class=3D"stl150" style=3D"letter-spacing:-0.05pt">=E2=81=8B282= . See also Opinion of Jose E. Alvarez, Sempra <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Energy Int'l & Camuzzi I= nt'l v. Republic of Argentina, ARB/02/16 and ARB/03/02, p. 6 (9/12/2005). A= vailable at: http://ita.law.uvic.ca/documents/CamuzziSempraAlvarezOpinion.= pdf. 56 OIL PLATFORMS <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Iran v. U.S.), International Court of Justice. Judgment on the Merits, Nov= ember 6, 2003. 57 ALFORD (2001), p. 41.= <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt">25 </p= ><img src=3D"data:image/png;bas= e64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAl= wSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACNVJREFUeJzt3SGOlFEQhdFb3QQxhBASCALFsAcWgUSyDRyrQb= IBFJolIMCwBWbSATOdYgVMGjPvr+Yc/cQnr3hJJQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAVtTqgCGeJ3mb5GJ1CON9S/JxdQQAsxlwp7lIcplkvzqE8= a6T/FgdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwq1odcC66+2mSl6s7AG= C4Y5LvVXW1OmTL7q0OOCOvk3xYHQEAk3X3oareJPm8umXLdqsDAAD4NwYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAM= AYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwBhwAwDAuMZygu/dJHuSWwXs8Hu/vdrvD3VUBW1RV3d3H1R0w= VVUdktys7tg6A+40L5K8T/Lwbw/2+/2z7v59d0nAFnX3r6p6t7oDBrtJ8nV1xNY5Zn+C7n6V5FO= SJ6tbgM37WVWPV0cA580fOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDD= gAgGGc0jrNdXd/SfJodQiweW4iAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8H/4A42VM8T23pY0AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" widt= h=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The academic deba= te around the scope and extent of Article XXI of the GATT is diverse. While= some = scholars advocate for th= e justiciability of Article XXI, others argue that such provision cannot be= = ;subjected to the GATT=E2=80=99= s dispute settlement dispositions. Raj Bhala favors the latter interpretati= on. He contends that Article XX= I (b) provides an effective solution to this debate, in the context that it= s own = language purposely inser= ts the word =E2=80=98it=E2=80=99, and therefore =E2=80=9Cno WTO panel or ot= her adjudicatory body, has any = right to determine whether a measure =E2=80=A6 satisfies its requirements= =E2=80=9D58. He shares the defense made by the EC regarding the trade embargo = against Argentina, which asserts that the sanctioning = 0;member does not have to notif= y or justify to, or seek approval or ratification from any Member when </sp= an> </sp= an>invoking Article XXI. He sustains t= hat the Decision Concerning Article XXI <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">does not impose on Members an obligation to notify since its wording lets the= m decide whether notification is =E2=80=9Cpossible=E2=80=9D59</spa= n>. Although = = Bhala=E2=80=99s argument is cer= tainly valid, the Decision Concerning Article XXI <= /span>should be read as imposing an </span= >obligation to notify while giving the= sanctioning member the discretion to determine which details will <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>not be disclosed. Bhala also suggests that wh= ile nothing prevents a State from bringing a claim against a member = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">invoking Arti</= span>cle XXI, a WTO panel is not likely to adjudicate on the meri= ts the claimant=E2=80=99s invocation of that article60. He says it is likely t= hat the WTO will keep interpreting its terms of reference narrowly, = = as in the US-Ni= caragua report. Bhala suggests that good faith of the members is the only way to avoid abusive invocations of articl= e XXI</s= pan>61. Nevertheless, he advocates for the delimitation of Article XXI (b), bas= ed on a reasonableness standard that would objectively evaluate whether a reasonabl= e government facing the same circumstances would have invoked the provision. This a= rgument appears to be in contradiction with his self-judging interpretation of Arti= cle XXI. If the article is not justiciable, the question remains open </spa= n> = on who should= delimit subparagraph (b) and who should determine the reasonableness of th= e measure. Bhala does not clari= fy this. For Bhala=E2=80=99s claim of delimitation to be valid, it would ha= ve to at least <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">require Article = XXI (b) to be justiciable. Roge= r Alford analyzed the preparatory works and also advocates for the self-jud= ging characteristic of the exce= ption, concluding that the members=E2=80=99 intention was for Article XXI t= o be invoked in limited circumstances but for them to reserve the right to determin= e when they would invoke it62. Contrary to Bhala and Alford, other commentators = have elaborated strong arguments in favor of the </s= pan>justiciabil= ity of article XXI. Particularly, the opinions of Lindsay, Scholemann and O= hlhoff, and Akande and Williams are noteworthy. <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> Akande and Williams = argue that allowing Article XXI to be self-judging would be to undermine th= e = 0;legal effects of the GATT sin= ce it will leave compliance with obligations to the members=E2=80=99 discre= tion63. Scholemann and Ohlho= ff sustain that allowing members to block the jurisdiction of the dispute <= /span> <= /span>settlemen= t bodies just by invoking this article would be to transform a substantive = issue into a 58 BHALA (1998), pp= . 268-69. 59 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 270-271. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">60 =C3=8Ddem, p 279. </= span>61 =C3=8Ddem, p 313. 62 </spa= n>ALFORD (2001), p. 699. 63 AKANDE, = Dapo & WILLIAMS, Sope (2003): =E2=80=9CInternationa= l Adjudication on National Security Issues: What Role for <= /span>the WTO=E2=80=9D, Virginia Journal of International= Law, Vol. 43, pp. 365, 384. 26 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJ= zt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer= /pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA9= 2pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"po= sition:absolute" />procedural one, and would contradict the WTO=E2=80=99s purpose= of strengthening the multilateral system64. They further argue that because the DSU applies to all cov= ered agreements, including the GATT, and there is no explicit reference excluding A= rticle XXI, it is clear that a panel has jurisdiction to decide <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> these claims= 65. = This argument is very compelling because, once again, members had the oppor= tunity to exclude the invocations of security exceptions from the DSU. Furthermore, they = label as =E2=80=9Cclearly justiciable=E2=80=9D those situations where there is no r= isk to a security interest or whenever a measure has no effect protecting said int= erest66. Nonetheless, this assertion remains dubious at best. The determ= ination = of essential security interests is subjective to each country and their soc= iopolitical circumstances; it is not possible for those limits to be =E2=80=9Cclear= =E2=80=9D. Scholemann and Ohlho= ff tend to favor the position that while panels should have an interpretati= ve &#x= a0;role, they would not have de= finitional authority67. Clarifying this interpret= ation, Lindsay pointed out that it is up to members to decid= e what measure to apply, while leaving to a WTO panel the jurisdiction <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>to objectively review when <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the measure would = be applied68. It should be noted that a member, when making a decision to protect its security interes= ts, does not only analyze the measure to be taken but also the correct timing and duration of it. Separa= ting the substance of the measure from the member=E2=80=99s determination of when to apply it would likely= render an incomplete and flawed analysis. Lindsay suggests that the US =E2=80=93 Czechoslovaki= a and EC =E2=80=93 Yugoslavia disputes are clear indications that Article XXI is subject to Article XXIII<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">69= . The Czechoslovakia case was significant since the GATT <= /span> Council did not deny jurisdiction to make a determination on = the issue. The EC, in the dispute with = Yugoslavia, never= objected the establishment of a panel, indicating that they would accept t= he panel=E2=80=99s jurisdiction to decide on the matter. The latter, in addition to= Contracting Parties=E2=80=99 statements during <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the preparatory wo= rks and the Decision Concerning Article XXI<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, have driven = Lindsay to suggest that it is u= nlikely a panel would reject jurisdiction70. Furthermore, he warns about= the large loophole that would = be created in the system if the WTO were to reject its jurisdiction on Arti= cle XXI. VII. Standard</sp= an> = ;of Review The panel in its non-b= inding report in US =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, discussed ab= ove, hinted which standard of r= eview would be applicable in the event of having the terms of reference to = do so. T= he panel would analyze if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D weighted t= he balance of the security interest and = the trade relation with the member subje= ct of the measure. Nevertheless, it would be na=C3=AFve not to <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">stress that typicall= y nations value their security interests much higher than its trade relatio= ns. Consequently, while a member may give careful thought to= its trade relations before imposing a = measure based on Article XXI, the balanc= e will generally tilt towards safeguarding its alleged national <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = security. 64 SCHOLEM= ANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 439-440. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 65 =C3=8Ddem, p. 441. </p= >66 =C3=8Ddem, p. 443. 67 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 448. 68 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1= 287. 69 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 1293-1294. </spa= n> 70 =C3=8Ddem. 27 </sp= an> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnA= AAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACQ1JRE= FUeJzt3T1uFEEUhdH7WiMjILH4yUiQWANbYBeInMUQswx2QMIiyAgNJCDZGAfTRUBA6MEgqt9wj= lRZBzfrT62WKgEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIMnTJJ+TDMf5w/MmAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD= /qZo94JiMMU6TnM7eAQCNrUk+VdX32UO2bDd7wJF5keTl7BEA0NhFfr5L380esmUC7i9a1/X+si= xPZu8AgK7GGOdVdWf2jq1bZg8AAOD3CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAm= hFwAADNuInhAGOMh0meJbl1zaOP1nV9/w8mAcCxutzv95ezR2ydgDvM4ySvkjy47sFl8VETAG5q= jHG+2+1uz96xdWoDAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZNzE= cZj/GOBtjXM0eAp1U1VWSdfYOoJWLJN9mj9g6AXeYparu5YCrtIBfqup5krezdwCtjCRfZo/YOg= F3mEpyUlUns4dAM1+r6uPsEQDHxj9wAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4= AAAmhFwAADNuInhMGfrur5Ocnf2EOhkWZYPszcAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAA3MQPvAvLEyBY6Z8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Cann71= , joined by A= kande and Williams72, hold that the determination of the necessity of a = measure for security reasons is= subjective and as such should be determined by the members themselves and = = not be r= eviewable by third parties. They also concur that a panel should have the j= urisdiction to reviewing the measure under a good faith standard. Akande and Will= iams add that in order to properly analyze the member=E2=80=99s good faith, a panel= would have to review the purpose of the measure73. Both positions seem contradictory. In order to determ= ine good faith under their proposed standard, and to review the purpose of the meas= ure, a panel must do some analysis of the necessity of the measure. = <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Furthermore, Cann argues that applying this good faith standard should be= enough to =E2=80=9Cprohibit 74 d= iscriminatory actions=E2=80=9D . But, if the Contracting Parties had intended for = security exception invocations to be non-discriminatory they would have left them u= nder Article XX and subjected to the chapeau test. Akande and Williams suggest that= in order to comply with the good faith standard, the invoking member =E2=80=9Cmust genuinely believe that= the measure taken is necessary to protect its national security interests=E2=80=9D= . They argue a panel should examine whether the member considered an <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = essential securit= y interest threatened and whether the measure was a proportional response t= o the th= reat75. However, this interpretation would give panels too much authorit= y to determine what is not an =E2=80=9Cessential security interest=E2=80=9D, what i= s not a =E2=80=9Cthreat=E2=80=9D, and what is not =E2=80=9Cproportionate re= sponse=E2=80=9D; these determinations should always be left = to the States=E2=80=99 since an objective evaluation of these elements is <= /span> highly unlikely. Scholemann and Ohlhoff, who also propose a good fa= ith standard of review, contend that it should be applied by analyzing the reasonableness of the measure</= span>76. Akande and Williams reject the reasonableness standard = on the basis that the drafters could have included this requirement but </s= pan> </s= pan>refrained from doing so. Using the= same argument, we could rebuttal their good faith standard proposition on the grou= nds that drafters could also have included a good faith requirement. </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The scholars t= hat support the good faith standard do recognize the challenges in applying= it. Difficulty <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">of proving a go= vernment acted in bad faith77 and who bears the= burden78 are but a few of them. VIII. State Practice The WTO Agreement states that the organization =E2= =80=9Cshall be guided by the decisions, procedures and &= #xa0;c= ustomary practices=E2=80=9D79 of its members. With this clause, the WT= O acknowledged the prospective = effects of State practice vis-a-vis the treaty. The VCLT = provides for general and supplementary rules 71 CANN, Wesley A. Jr. (2001): =E2=80=9CCreating= Standards and Accountability for the Use of the WTO Security Exception: </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">R= educing the Role of Power-Based Relations and Establishing a New = Balance between Sovereignty and Multilateralism=E2=80=9D, <= /span>Yale Jour= nal of International Law, Vol. 26, pp. 413, 480. = 72 AKANDE & WILLIAM (2003), pp. 398-399. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 73 =C3=8Ddem, p. 396. </p= >74 CANN (2001), p. 452. 75 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">A= KANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 399. 76 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >SCHOLEMANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 443-445. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">77= =C3=8Ddem; AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 393. = ;78 AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 394. &#x= a0;79 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING= THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Morocco (4/15/1994), Article 16. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 28 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAACIFJREFUeJzt3TFqFkAURtE7ksoi2KQSsgErNxA7s5W0rsTGvaRJkcZdWIR= gZ6MQAoIyKdyAPyRMJpzTP/jK270CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBna= awesIl31ZfqzeohbO+6+rR6BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAM/PWD0A4CWbc76uzqvT1VtY6nd1= Ncb4dujhnPN9dVZ9ry7HGPePPY79HK0eAPDCHVcX1cfVQ1hnzvlzjPGjOjjgqg/V5+q6+loJOHq= 1egAAAIcRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAm/= HMHuAJzTmP+vfI/nj1Fpb6W92OMX4dejjnPKneVnfVzRjjz2OPAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgP/3ABfrI= 9qkU1wNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />for treaty interpretation80. The general rule remains that a= treaty should be interpreted in light of the principle of good faith, its ordinary= meaning with due regard for the context, and its object and purpose. Nevertheless, the VCLT signals that together with the context, it= should be taken into account, inter alia, =E2=80=9Cany subsequen= t practice in the application of the treaty which establis= hes the = agreement of the parties=E2=80=9D81<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. The VCLT, sh= owing its own age, prompted the International Law Commission (ILC) to expand or clarify the scope and cont= ent of several of its provision. In 2014, the ILC developed a series of guidelines for the effects of subs= equent practice of States in relation to treaties82. In its report, special rapp= orteur Georg Nolte referred to the WTO Appellate Body=E2=80=99s report </sp= an> on Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II,= which offered a definition of subsequent practice in treaty interpretation as the sequence of acts or pronouncements that are =E2=80= =9Cconcordant, common, and <= /p>consistent=E2=80= =9D83. While acknowledging the position of the Ap= pellate Body, he asserted that such standard = establishes a high threshold under Art= icle 31 (3) (b) =E2=80=9Crequir[ing] a particularly broad-based, settled, = = and qualified form of collective pract= ice in order to establish agreement between the parties regarding <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>interpretation=E2=80=9D84</span= >. He further notes that the Appellate Body seems to have taken t= hat standard from Sir Ian Sinclair85, who considered the value of subsequent pra= ctice dependent on =E2=80=9Cthe extent to which it is concordant, common and consistent= =E2=80=9D. Subsequently, in EC =E2=80=94 = Comput= er Equipment, the Appellate Body loos= ened the criteria established in Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II. It held that =E2=80=9C[t]he purpose of treaty interpretation is to establish the </span= >common [emphasis in original] intention = of the parties to the treaty. To establish this intention, the prior practice of on= ly one [emphasis in original] of = the parties may be relevant, but it is clearly of more limit= ed value than the practice of all parties=E2=80=9D<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >86. T= he Appellate <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Body implied that = in order for subsequent practice to be a legitimate mean of interpretation = it does = not need to be practiced by all members. Rather, the interpretative value i= ncreases in the measure more members engage in such practice. Therefore, the lack o= f a formal interpretation of the article, together with these provisions and statements, leads to the conc= lusion that pronouncements and = actions by a majority of states is the most legitimate and reliable mechani= sm to interpret the scope and applicability of Article XXI. = During t= he preparatory works discussions, the Contracting Parties seemed to have ac= corded a special treatment to Article XXI but nonetheless made it subject to judici= al review under the proper dispute settlement mechanisms. Due regard should be given to the statement by t= he US delegate, who shared that the security exceptions were not outside the scope = of the dispute settlement provisions. However, </spa= n>there has been an apparent shift fro= m that position. The parties=E2=80=99 statements and practice since the <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'"> </= p>GATT entered into= force seem to indicate that a significant number of States favor the posit= ion that 80 VIENNA CONVENTION ON= THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969) Art. 31-32. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;81 =C3=8Ddem, Article 31 =E2=81=8B3(b). &#x= a0;82 UNITED NATIONS, INTERN= ATIONAL LAW COMMISSION: =E2=80=9CSecond Report on subsequent agreements and= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">subsequent practice in relation to the interpretation of treaties of Its = Sixty-Sixth Session=E2=80=9D, A/CN.4/671 (3/ 26/2014) (<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">ILC Report). 83 WORLD TRADE ORGAN= IZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1996): =E2=80=9CJapan =E2=80=94 Alcoholic B= everages II=E2=80=9D, = WT/DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/= R, WT/DS11/AB/R. 84 ILC Report, =E2=81=8B21. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">85= SINCLAIR, Ian (1984): The Vienna Convention on = the Law of Treaties (Manchester University Press), p. 137. </span= > 86 </sp= an> WORL= D TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1998): =E2=80=9CEC =E2=80=94 C= omputer Equipment=E2=80=9D, WT/DS62/AB/R, WT/DS67/AB/R, WT/DS68/AB/R, </sp= an>=E2=81=8B= 93. </span= >29 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB8= 4pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5Erk= Jggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolut= e" />the invocation of national security exception is enou= gh to preclude a panel from knowing and judging </sp= an>the righteousness of such measure. = = Close attention must also be pa= id to the frequency with which members have invoked Article XXI <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = and brought compl= aints under it. The few Article XXI cases brought to the GATT/WTO during it= s more t= han 60-year history evidences a lot of restraint from members in invoking s= ecurity exceptions. This restra= int, however, together with weak dispute settlement provisions that were in= place before <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the adoption of t= he DSU, must be the principal reason panels and appellate bodies have not h= ad the opportunity to determine= the justiciability and scope of the article, much less its standard of rev= iew. &= #xa0;One reason for such rest= raint may be that States acknowledge that the ambiguity surrounding the </s= pan> </s= pan>justiciability of the articl</span= >e actually favors them. Scholars as Lindsay favor this =E2=80=98= constructive=E2=80=99 ambiguity, arguing that allowing members to address the secur= ity exception through less formal methods permits greater flexibility in timing and response, protects rea= l and perceived concerns over national sovereignty, and provides the necessary ch= ecks against abuse of these exceptions87. In the discussions regarding <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">United S= tates =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua= a majority of States seemed </span= >to have agreed that an Article XXI in= vocation should be made in good faith and exercised with prudence; but leaving those determinations to eac= h member. As Alford has correctly pointed out, regardless a panel may interpret it = otherwise, Article XXI has been se= lf-judging88. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">IX. </spa= n> = Mit= igating Abuses The main argument of States who oppose t= he self-judging interpretation is that this determination will <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> lead to abuses and i= ts invocation could serve as a hard bargaining technique used by powerful m= embers a= gainst weak ones. These are valid concerns; nonetheless, States themselves = can prevent abuses by holding each other accountable in a number of ways. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Alford has suggested four mechanisms con= templated by the WTO which would help mitigating abuse of the clause. Under Article XXXV of the GATT, an= d upon the accession of a new member, a Contracting Party may declare their trading relations will not be= subject to GATT/WTO obligations89. Since a super-majority is needed to accede the organization, acco= rding to Alford the purpose of the article was to allow members who voted against the admission not to be = obliged towards the new member.= This opt-out, or non-application, provision has seldom been invoked. </spa= n> </spa= n>Just as the system lets members opt-= out of obligations, Article XXIV permits parties to enter into <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">preferential trade agreements (PTA) to furt= her liberalize trade between its members. Alford suggests that members of a PTA can= incorporate an objective security exception. This way, the invocation of <= /span> such secu= rity exception will be justiciable in relation to the PTA members, while th= e self-judging <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">standard will re= main for non-PTA members90. 87 LINDSAY (2003), p. 13= 12. 88 ALFORD (2001), p. 708. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 89 =C3=8Ddem, p. 726. </p= >90 =C3=8Ddem, p. 733. 30 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAAB= Pud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzkENAg= EQALGBkPsgABTiClenAgN8kbFZ0ipoAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwVy7TgSWO6lFdpyOs960+0wkAdrtNB5Z4= Vq/qPh1hvbN6TycAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFb4ARMGBADJpJB4AAAAAE= lFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolut= e" />Another mechanism a member can implement is altering = the discretionary tariff benefits given to other </s= pan>members. However, these discretion= ary tariff benefits can only be applied by developed countries <span= class=3D"stl19" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">vis- a-vis develo= ping countries91. Nonetheless, this alternative could prevent the over i= nvocation of Article XXI, since= a developed country could meet its objectives by removing or suspending a = tariff benefit <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">without the need= of invoking a security exception. The WTO also contemplates cases where a measure adopted is not contrary= to the covered agreements but = nonetheless nullifies or impairs benefits. In fact, when discussing the inc= lusion of this non- violation r= emedy92, the working party used the example of an= invocation under the security exceptions </p= >which would be pe= rmissible by the Charter but could nonetheless impair or nullify other memb= ers=E2=80=99 benefits93. In those cases, the working part= y continued, a member could bring a claim not on the grounds that the measure viola= tes the Charter, but on the basis of an impairment or nullification of </sp= an> benefits. Therefore, while a Panel could not review an Article X= XI measure, it would retain the jurisdiction determine whether there is an impairm= ent or nullification of benefits. The invoking member does not have to remove the measure, but the affecte= d party is entitled to damages94. Alford correctly argues that this is an exceptional remedy which =E2= =80=9Cshould be approached with caution=E2=80=9D95 and therefore should be invoked only for controversi= al national security invocations96. Member States also have the ability to solve the issues that prom= pt the adoption of Article XXI measures by recurring to alternate mechanisms other = than those contemplated in the GATT/WTO. = For example, the US reached an agreement= with the EC outside the GATT/WTO system, which led the latter to withdraw its WTO complaint. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Parties who are memb= ers of the same regional organization could attempt to discuss the issue an= d work o= ut a solution with the help of other members; or, they can use it as a plat= form to rally support for their position. Moreover, members must certainly look to = the United Nations to seek redress for = measures adopted for national security r= easons. Article 33 of the United Nations Charter mandates parties to any dispute which is likely to endang= er the maintenance of international peace and security to seek solutions through the appropriate means o= f pacific settlement of disputes. The Security Council, when it deems it necessary, can call upon the part= ies to solve their dispute through such means97. It can be argued that State=E2=80=99s real or perceiv= ed threat to its national security is likely to endanger or constitute a threat to = international peace and security. Consequently, if a State believes its nat= ional se= curity is compromised because of the actions another State, it could recur = to the United Nations system to= seek relief instead of imposing a GATT/WTO measure under Article XXI</span= >98. In fact, during = the preparatory works of the GATT the Co= ntracting Parties addressed which organization, if any, was 91 </= span>=C3=8Ddem, p. 741. 92 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 747. 93 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9C= Report of Working Party of Sub- Committee G of Committee VI on C= hapter VIII=E2=80=9D, E/CONF.2/C.6/W.30 (1/9/1948). &#x= a0;94 MARRAKESH= AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Understanding on </sp= an> Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disput= es Article 26 =E2=81=8B 1(b), Annex 2, (1994) (DSU). <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 95 </span= > WORLD = TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (2001): =E2=80=9CEuropean Communi= ties-Measures Affe= cting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products=E2=80=9D, = WT/DSl35/AB/R, =E2=81=8B186. </span= >96 ALFORD (2001), p. 748. 97 </spa= n>UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, San Francisco (6/26/1945) Article 33, <= span class=3D"stl42" style=3D"font-size:10pt; letter-spacing:normal">=E2=81= =8B 2. 98 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Wi= th due regard to the imbalance that exists between countries with veto powe= r in the Security Council and those without it. </p= >31= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+tJREFUeJzt1rENwlAUwEBHKGU6FmBERmGzLJI6LSvQPX1xN4FLFwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMCEbTpgEa/qXR3TISzvrD7TEQCszcD9Zq+e1W= M6hOXd1TUdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= wH/7AvqBBAONN6eIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" sty= le=3D"position:absolute" />to determine the impact of political measures in the i= nternational trade system. They agreed it should to be the United Nations and not t= he trade organization. Particularly, the representatives of the United </sp= an> Kingdom and Greece stated that the trade organization was to be = created to deal with economic measures and not political matters, and as such the l= atter should be under the United Nations=E2=80=99 competence. The Greek delegate we= nt further by arguing that =E2=80=9Can economic measure taken for <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">political reasons was not properly speaking an economic measure but a= political measure and as such was not of the competence of the [trade] Organizat= ion=E2=80=9D99. The US delegate=E2=80=99s statement followed the = = same argument as the British and Greek= representatives, but emphasized that a political dispute was <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">to be dealt by the Un= ited Nations when the issue was within its jurisdiction, and that the Confe= rence=E2=80=99s function was not to take any stand on whether or not it supported = unilateral economic sanctions100. The Committee recommended drafting a specific = article that would clarify the relationship and </sp= an>jurisdiction of the new trade organ= ization and the United Nations101, but it never m= ade it to the final General Agreement. X. Conclusion <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-sp= acing:normal"> This paper = has attempted to gather the various, and contradictory, interpretations giv= en by several <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">sources regarding Article XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability. Any member ca= n request the establishment of a panel to </p= >analyze the valid= ity of an Article XXI exception, as they have this right under Article VI o= f the DSU, but we consider the panel should reach the conclusion that the invoking = member has the right to determine the appropriateness of the measure. A WTO panel s= hould not have the jurisdiction to define </p= >what does not constitute a national secu= rity interest, an essential security interest, or an emergency in <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>international rel= ations. Members must be the ones who determine what issues concern their na= tional s= ecurity and the measures to be taken in order to safeguard them. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >Although some arguments in favor of Arti= cle XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability are persuasive, particularly the fact <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >that members had = several opportunities to clarify or modify the article to make it expressly= self- j= udging, Article XXI should not be reviewable. If, as proposed by some schol= ars, a panel should have the jurisdiction only to determine the necessity or the ti= ming of the measure, such analysis could not = be made without making an assessment o= f its content and purpose. The = most compelling argument in favor of its self-judging characteristic is the= interpretation States have giv= en to it. While concerns for abuse of the clause are valid, bringing a comp= laint to a GATT/WTO panel is no= t the only mechanism an affected member can use to seek relief. The article= =E2=80=99s ambiguity is not nec= essarily bad for the system, and the members=E2=80=99 rest= raint in invoking it demonstrates an underlying commitment not to abuse the invocat= ion of security exceptions and an implied recognition of alternative means to safeguard its security inter= ests. The time may come sooner rather than later for a panel to finally issue a b= inding decision on the justiciability and scope of Article XXI. <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">99 <= /p>UNITED NATIONS CONFEREN= CE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Thirty<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= - = Seventh Meeting=E2=80=9D, E/CONF,2/C.6/SR.37 (3/11/1948). </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 =C3=8Ddem. = 101 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLO= YMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of the Sixth Committee: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Organization=E2=80=9D, E/CO= NF.2/68 (1948), Article 83 =E2=81=8Ba. 32 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/= png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhk= iAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBlJREFUeJzt1qFNA1AUQNH7k9IACQrBAkhYjkm6EFt= UV+BBYmELHr85Z4IrbwEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8tTUdAEz7OVbP1XG65Ap81fqYjgCu32E6AJj2/Vi3b7Wepkv2t96r0= 3QFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMGBN= B2zioXqtbqZD2N5ndZ6OAGBvh+mATdxXL9XddAjbu2TgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOB/+gUqrgnll22zhQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" he= ight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTIT= IA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol= . 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 33 - 77 = Panor= =C3=A1mica general del Sistema sancionador tributario <spa= n class=3D"stl21">aplicable al impuesto sobre la renta en Guatemala = Dr. Carlos E. Weffe H.=EF=81=B9 = </= span>*Autor para Correspondencia. E-ma= il<a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" s= tyle=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iust= itia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">c.weffe= @ibfd.org </a>Recibido: 10 de abril de 2021 <= /span>Aceptado: 1 de mayo de 2021 </sp= an> </sp= an>______________________________= ________________________________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo se divide en dos (2) partes. La primera = parte, sobre el sistema sancionador guatemalteco; concretamente, sobre sus fundamen= tos constitucionales. Para lo cual, se desarrollan los &= #xa0;c= onceptos de: (i) reserva legal y legalidad punitiva; (ii) proporcionalidad;= (iii) non bis in =C3=ADdem; y (iv) culpabilidad. Dentro del concepto de proporcionalida= d, se hace referencia a los subprincipios de = idoneidad, necesidad, y proporcionalid= ad stricto sensu. La segunda parte, sobre= la aplicaci=C3=B3n e influencia del sistema sancionador en el impuesto sob= re la = r= enta. Para ello, se desarrolla el r=C3=A9gimen infraccional tributario, aba= rcando, en consecuencia: (i) la validez material y temporal de la ley sancionadora= ; (ii) la definici=C3=B3n y clasificaci=C3=B3n de las infracciones; = = (iii) las presunciones y l=C3=ADmites = del derecho sancionador; (iv) el concurso y reincidencia de los il=C3=ADcit= os; y = (= v) la responsabilidad tributaria. Palabras clave: Derecho tributario; derecho sancionador tributario; im= puesto sobre la renta; Guatemala. Abstract: </span= >This paper is divided in two (2) part= s. The first part analyzes the Guatemalan sanctioning system; <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10.5pt">=EF=81=B9Senior Research Associate</= span>, International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation </s= pan>(IBFD), Pa=C3=ADses Bajos. Managing Editor, IBFD </= span>Observatory on th= e Protection of Taxpayers=E2=80=99 Rights. Lecturer= , Advanced Master=E2=80=99s in International Taxation, IBFD- <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:normal">University of Amsterdam, Pa=C3=ADses Bajos. Profesor= Asociado y ex Jefe de la C=C3=A1tedra de =C2=ABFinanzas P=C3=BAblicas=C2= =BB, Universidad Central de Venezuela. Profesor de = =C2=ABDerechos Humanos y Tributaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB, Universidad Monte=C3=A1vil= a. Representante alterno por Panam=C3=A1 al Directorio del Instituto Latin= oamericano de Derecho Tributario (ILADT). Miembro, Asociaci=C3=B3n Paname= =C3=B1a de Derecho Financiero y Tributario (APADEFT). Miembro, Academia Me= xicana de Derecho Fiscal (AMDF). Coordinador de la Comisi=C3=B3n de Derech= o Internacional Tributario, AMDF. Abogado (Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Andr= =C3=A9s Bello). Especialista en Derecho Tributario y Doctor en Derecho (Un= iversidad Central de Venezuela). Autor de cuatro libros en = solitario y m= =C3=A1s de setenta art=C3=ADculos y cap=C3=ADtulos de libros en materia tri= butaria y relacionadas. 33 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:31"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+ZJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElgQI= FyELsW6F+B99SI+NyZEbBFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAe9ymA0u8qnf1nI6w= 3lkd0wkAdrtPB5b4Vp/qMR1hvWs6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwT35JHgTCxEbxBwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg= =3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /= >delving specifically, into its constitutional foundations= . To this end, the following concepts are </p= >explored: (i) legal reserve and punitive= legality; (ii) proportionality; (iii) non bis in idem; and (iv) <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">culpability. Within the concept of proportio= nality, reference is made to the subprinciples of suitability, <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">necessity, and proportionality <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">stricto sensu. <= /p>The second part = focuses on the application and the influence of the sanctioning system rega= rding the income tax. To this purpose, the tax infringement = regime is expanded by covering: (i) the material and = ;temporal validity of the sanct= ioning law; (ii) the definition and classification of the infringements; (i= ii) &#= xa0;the presumptions and limits= of the sanctioning law; (iv) the competition and recidivism of the offense= s; &#x= a0;and (v) the tax liability. <= /span> <= /span>Keywords: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Tax law; tax penalties; income tax; Guatema= la. &#= xa0;1. Introducci=C3=B3n. A pesar del auge que ha tenido l= a tributaci=C3=B3n indirecta en los =C3=BAltimos tiempos,1 = el impuesto s= obre la renta (ISLR) es a=C3=BA= n uno de los elementos principales de los sistemas tributarios contempor=C3= =A1neos. En tanto su dise=C3=B1= o toma particularmente en cuenta la situaci=C3=B3n individual del contribuy= ente, el ISLR es <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">una de las her= ramientas primordiales2 para la concreci=C3=B3n p= r=C3=A1ctica de los mandatos constitucionales </span= >para el sistema tributario<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3 = de jus= ticia, equidad, tributaci=C3=B3n conforme con la capacidad contributiva e <= /span> <= /span>interdicc= i=C3=B3n de los efectos confiscatorios de los tributos, especialmente aquel= los efecto de la doble o m=C3=BAltiple imposici=C3=B3n.4 Todos estos valores est= =C3=A1n vinculados al llamado =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB,5 </sp= an> 1 <= /span>Como rasgo com=C3=BAn, es posible afirmar que las estructuras trib= utarias latinoamericanas han dado importancia creciente al = impuesto al val= or agregado (IVA). Seg=C3=BAn las estad=C3=ADsticas recopiladas por L</span= >ORA, mientras que la recaudaci=C3=B3n promedio de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;tributos di= rectos ha sido del 4% del PIB en las =C3=BAltimas d=C3=A9cadas, 3,5 % por d= ebajo de la media mundial, la recaudaci=C3=B3n <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">promedio del IVA pas=C3=B3 = de 2,9% del PIB a fines de la d=C3=A9cada de 1980 a 7,9% del PIB en 2008, e= quiparable a la media mundial. No es descabellado afirmar que esa tenden= cia se mantiene =E2=80=93incluso, se ha acrecentado=E2=80=93 en = la actualidad al punto que puede decirse, con LORA, que el IVA =E2=80=9Cha pasa= do a ocupar el papel central en la pol=C3=ADtica tributaria=E2=80= =9D. Probablemente, ello se debe =E2=80= =93seg=C3=BAn LORA=E2= =80=93 a la mayor influencia relativa de g= rupos de altos ingresos en la pol=C3=ADtica tributaria, y a las mayores </s= pan> posibilidades de manipulaci=C3=B3n que ofrecen los imp= uestos directos en comparaci=C3=B3n con el IVA, adem=C3=A1s de su menor </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">vi= sibilidad frente al ISLR. LORA, Eduardo (2008): =E2=80=9CEl futuro de los p= actos fiscales en Am=C3=A9rica Latina=E2=80=9D, Working Pa= per, No. 650 (Inter-American Development Bank, Res= earch Department, Washington, DC), pp. 5-6, 16, 26-27. Disponible en: </spa= n> http= s://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/51434/1/613978374.pdf. En el mismo sent= ido, ver ESPINOSA SEP=C3=9ALVEDA, Jorge (2014): =E2=80=9CLos sistemas de i= mpuesto a la renta de Am=C3=A9rica Latina y los convenios de dobl= e imposici=C3=B3n vigentes=E2=80=9D, Derecho PUCP: Revista de la Fa= cultad de Derecho, No. 72 (Pontificia Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica d= el Per=C3=BA) p. 204. Disponible en: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet= /articulo?codigo=3D4904853. 2Por su capacidad redistributiva y su alta sensibilidad a l= a capacidad contributiva, el ISLR ha sido calificado como la = 0;=C2=ABcolumna= vertebral=C2=BB de un sistema tributario equitativo. ANDINO ALARC=C3=93N, = Mauro (2009): =E2=80=9CHacia un nuevo sistema <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">de imposici=C3=B3n directa: = el Impuesto a la Renta para el Ecuador un sistema distributivo=E2= =80=9D, Fiscalidad No. 3 (Centro de Estudios </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Fi= scales, Quito) p. 108. Disponible en: http://repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec= /bitstream/10469/3869/1/REXTN-F03-04- Andino.pdf. </span= >3 GUATEMAL= A, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 243. </= span>4La dob= le o m=C3=BAltiple imposici=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 constitucional y legalmente pr= ohibida en Guatemala, de conformidad con los art=C3= =ADculos 243 de la Constituci=C3=B3n y 153 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. </sp= an> 5 = Bajo el concepto de =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB, la relaci=C3= =B3n entre sistema tributario y Estado social y democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">debe estructurarse a partir del uso extensivo y preferen= te del impuesto respecto de las restantes formas de ingreso estatal<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">, dado su car=C3=A1cter redistributivo por excelencia q= ue permite, con base fundamental en la medici=C3=B3n de = la real capacidad contributiva, la financiaci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;del creciente gasto p=C3=BAblico en funciones = de asignaci=C3=B3n, y por su <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt; letter-spacing:normal">elasticidad, dentro de los l=C3=ADm= ites que impone necesariamente el 34 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAA= BPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENg= DAQALFDATbwiAGUoWsqyGekVdACAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADg= E8d0YBNX9VTndITtvdU9nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAID/WKrDAgILt3qKAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" h= eight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />funda= mental6 para la concreci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica de la solidaridad<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 7 como valor esencial del Estado Social y D= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho.8 Guatema= la no es una excepci=C3=B3n. La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, =E2=80=9C<= /span>= afirmando la primac=C3=ADa de la persona humana como sujeto y fin del orden social<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= -0.05pt">=E2=80=9D,9 organiza jur=C3=ADdica y pol= =C3=ADticamente al Estado como Social de Derecho,10 = ;para proteger a la persona y s= u dignidad.11 En este contexto, la Constituci=C3=B3n, por una parte, rec= onoce = como derechos fundamenta= les12 a la propiedad privada, base de la tributaci=C3=B3n,13 </= span>y a la l= ibertad de industria, comercio = y trabajo, de la que derivan varias de las principales fuentes de producci= =C3=B3n de la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">D= erecho a la actividad estatal, para procurar por su operaci=C3=B3n la </spa= n>estabilizaci=C3=B3n de la econom=C3=ADa. WEFFE H., Ca= rlos E. (2015): =E2=80=9CTributaci=C3=B3n y Regulaci=C3=B3n. Notas introdu= ctorias al debate sobre la funci=C3=B3n del Tributo en el Estado Social y D= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho= =E2=80=9D, Tributaci=C3=B3n yRegulaci= =C3=B3n. = AVDT. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">p= p. 55-56. </= span>Disponible </span= > en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index= .php/component/k2/item/414-tributacion-y-regulacion-notas-introductorias-al= -debate- sobre-la-funcion-del-tributo-en-el-estado-social-y-democratico-de= -derecho. 6<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">De acuerdo con JOSEF I<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">SEN= SEE, el Estado delineado por la Constituci=C3=B3n es =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB, y este = constituye =E2=80=9Cel fundamento jur=C3=ADdico constituc= ional del Estado Social=E2=80=9D, al punto que este =C3=BAltimo = =E2=80=9Cdepende inevitablemente del Estado Impositivo com= o su veh=C3=ADculo=E2=80=9D. Bajo esas premisas, <= /span>ISENSEE es de la opini= =C3=B3n de que existe una =C3=ADntima vinculaci=C3=B3n entre una buena </sp= an> Adm= inistraci=C3=B3n, =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB y =C2=ABprocura existencial= =C2=BB. ISENSEE, Josef (1977): =E2=80=9CSteuerstaat als Staatsfor= m=E2=80=9D, en ST=C3=96DTER, ROLF Y THIEME, WERNER (Edit.), Beitrage zum deutschen und europ=C3=A4ischen Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- = und Wirtschaftsrecht (T=C3= =BCbingen) pp. 409-410. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">7En las palabra= s de C=C3=89SAR GARC=C3=8DA N= OVOA, =E2=80=9CNo todo= tributo encaja en esta percepci=C3=B3n de la solidaridad [la del= Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho]; solo aquel= los que articulan la contribuci=C3=B3n de todos al sostenimiento de los gas= tos p=C3=BAblicos. Se excluyen </spa= n> = los tributos de cariz retributivo (la tasa y, en menor medida, la= contribuci=C3=B3n especial) en los cuales el presupuesto de los mismos inc= luye una prestaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n. En el Es= tado Social no es el tributo, sino el impuesto, el instrumento de la solida= ridad. De ah=C3=AD que se hable de Estado Impositivo= =E2=80=9D. GARC=C3=8DA NOVOA, C=C3=A9sar (2009): El concepto de tributo (Lima, Tax Editor), p. 1= 34. 8 WEFFE (2015), pp. 49-63. 9 GUATEMALA, Constit= uci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, Pre=C3=A1mbulo. 10 </sp= an>La Corte de Constitucionalidad, apod=C3=ADcticamente, ha se=C3=B1alad= o la unanimidad doctrinal =E2=80=9Cal caracterizar al Esta= do guatemalteco como un Estado social de Derecho, de confor= midad con la teleolog=C3=ADa ampliamente desarrollada en su reconstituci=C3= =B3n de mil novecientos ochenta y cin= co=E2=80=9D. Sentencia de la Corte de Cons= titucionalidad de Guatemala de 13 de julio de 2005 (Procurador de los Derec= hos Humanos vs. Instituto Guatemalteco de los Segur= os Sociales, Expediente 2765-2004), p. 4. Consultado el 17 de diciembre </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">de= 2018. Disponbile en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/806724.2765-2004.pdf= . = De ello se sigue, como corolario, que la interpretaci=C3=B3n constitucio= nal exige la ponderaci=C3=B3n entre la libertad individual =E2=80=9C= con la igualdad, la solidaridad, el bienestar com= =C3=BAn=E2=80=9D. En consecuencia, =E2=80=9Cla i= nterpretaci=C3=B3n valorativa de la Constituci=C3=B3n en orden a los derech= os humanos contenidos en ella debe dar por presupuestos que:= a) esos derechos son, ontol=C3=B3gicamente, limitados, porque son d= erechos =E2=80=98del hombre en = sociedad=E2=80=99= ; y b) esos derechos son relativos y, por ende, admiten limitaciones razona= bles al tenor de lo que en ese punto habilita la Constituc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, como lo son las tributarias, por ejemplo. Sen= tencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 15 de enero de 200= 8 = (Marie Claire Palacios Boeufgras, Debora Mar=C3=ADa Ponce Ogaldez e In= =C3=A9s Mar=C3=ADa Cruz Garc=C3=ADa, en acci=C3=B3n de </= span>inconstitucionali= dad contra varios art=C3=ADculos de la Ley de la Direcci=C3=B3n General de = Inteligencia Civil y de la Ley Contra la Delincuencia Organizada, Expedien= te 2837-2006), p. 10. Consultado el 17 de diciembre de 2018. Disponbile en:= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/812942.2837-2006.pdf. </= span>11 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADc= ulos 1 y 4. 12 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3= =B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculos 39 y 43. 13 </= span>La propiedad, dice LEITE <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >DE CAMPOS, es= corolario de la libertad: es libre quien es aut=C3=B3nomo =E2=80=93PLAT=C3= =93N=E2=80=93 y dispone de <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">los medios materiales y ese= nciales de una vida digna =E2=80=93= SANTO T= OM=C3=81S DE AQUINO</sp= an>. Cada persona debe tener posibilidades </span= > de desarrollar libremente su personalidad y disponer de s= us bienes, lo que limita directamente al sistema tributario en el <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > estado d= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho: la tributaci=C3=B3n debe ser tal que permita a = las personas disfrutar efectivamente de su propiedad, y en consecuencia de= su libertad. LEITE DE CAMPOS, Diogo (2006): O sistema tri= but=C3=A1rio no Estado dos Cidada=C3=B5s = (Coimbra, Gr=C3=A1fica d= e Coimbra), pp. 56 y 110. Como con acierto se=C3=B1ala ANDRADE </= span>RODR=C3=8DGUEZ, =E2=80=9Cla existencia de razones que </s= pan> justifiquen la tributaci=C3=B3n no implica que =C3=A9sta pueda = ser creada de manera indiscriminada. Por lo contrario, esta debe ser conceb= ida sobre una serie de l=C3=ADmites que permitan la protecci= =C3=B3n del derecho de propiedad, el derecho a una subsistencia digna y otr= os Derechos Humanos Fundamentales, los cuales deben ser gara= ntizados en todo Estado que se precie de ser considerado democr=C3=A1tico. = [=E2=80=A6] La tributaci= =C3=B3n comienza en aquel lugar que excede la subsistencia h= umana digna m=C3=ADnima necesaria y termina en aquel lugar en donde =C3=A9s= ta destruye la propiedad=E2=80=9D. ANDRADE RODR=C3=8DGUEZ, Betty= (2018): Inmunidad tributaria de los derechos humanos. Cap= acidad contributiva y m=C3=ADnimo vital = (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, = Thomson Reuters), pp. 99, 126. 35 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPu= d2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENgDAQ= ALHDAkZwhSyMYG4yfktaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADYxjUdO= MRTfdU9HeF4f/VOJwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAANjTAqLMAgKlf3uWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" heig= ht=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />renta gravable con el ISLR; y p= or la otra, asume la realizaci=C3=B3n de una serie de actividades <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>prestacionales14 de garant=C3=ADa de = la llamada =C2=ABprocura existencial=C2=BB,15 de naturaleza subsidiari= a y &#= xa0;comp= lementaria de la iniciativa particular,16 cuyo = financiamiento depende fundamentalmente del <= /p>ingreso tributario.17 </span= > Sin embargo, estos obj= etivos, tan claros en el papel, no han sido alcanzados en la pr=C3=A1ctica = en los pa=C3=ADses latinoameric= anos: a pesar de constituir uno de los pilares fundamentales de los sistema= s tributarios de <= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">la regi=C3=B3n, el ISLR no tiene la importancia que su capacidad r= edistributiva permitir=C3=ADa prever.18 Entre las causas19 destaca la </span= >evasi= =C3=B3n fiscal, que puede calificarse como alarmante.</spa= n>20 Entre 2005 y 2009, la evasi=C3=B3n general del ISLR en Guatemala promedi=C3=B3 62%,21 <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">y para 2012 se estim=C3=B3 que el incumplimiento con el <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> r=C3=A9gimen de acti= vidades lucrativas del ISLR equivale al 40,3% de su potencial recaudatorio = total.22 La </p= >14 As=C3=AD lo ha reconocido la Corte de Constitucionalidad, al = indicar pac=C3=ADficamente que la Constituci=C3=B3n =E2=80=9C</sp= an>consagra el principio del = Estado social pre= stador de servicios=E2=80=9D. Sentencia <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 24 de julio de 2000 (Mice= la Chut=C3=A1n Gramajo de D=C3=ADaz y Julio C=C3=A9= sar Vargas Ju=C3=A1rez, en representaci=C3=B3n de sus hijos menores de edad= Julio Antonio Medina Chut=C3=A1n y Andr=C3=A9s V= argas M=C3=A1rquez, respectivamente, vs. Centros Educativos Lehnsen, Socied= ad An=C3=B3nima, Expediente 787-2000), p. 6. Consultado el 17 de diciembre= de 2018. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/815783.787-2000.= pdf. Ello, al decir de la Corte, =E2=80=9Cimplica la cons= tante intervenci=C3=B3n estatal para satisfacer demandas de los particulare= s=E2=80=9D. Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guate= mala de 27 de agosto de 2009, (Cr=C3=A9dito Hipotecario Nacional de Guatema= la y Jos=C3=A9 Fidencio Garc=C3=ADa Beltet=C3=B3n vs. Procurador de los De= rechos Humanos, Expediente 4061-2008), p. 5. Consultado el 18 de diciembre = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de 2018. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/810054.4061-2008.= pdf. 15 Seg=C3= =BAn ERNST FORSTHOFF, la =C2=ABprocura existencial=C2=BB es el co= njunto de medidas estatales que permiten subsidiariamente la = 0;satisfacci=C3= =B3n de aquellas necesidades humanas, b=C3=A1sicas para la existencia libre= y digna del ciudadano, a las que este no puede = atender por s=C3=AD mism= o. De este modo, el concepto se identifica con la diferencia entre el =C2= =ABespacio vital dominado=C2=BB, el =C3=A1mbito = de las necesidades human= as a las que el individuo est=C3=A1 en capacidad de atender por s=C3=AD mis= mo, sin necesidad de intervenci=C3=B3n externa; y el =C2=ABespacio vital= efectivo=C2=BB, el espectro de bienes y servicios que son necesarios para = que el individuo realice su existencia en condicion= es que permitan el reconocimiento de su dignidad, por una parte, y el goce = efectivo de su libertad, = por la otra. FORSTHOFF, = Ernst (1986): =E2=80=9CProblemas Constitucionales del Estado Social=E2=80= =9D, en ABENDROTH, Wolfgang; FORSTHOFF, Ernst y DOEHRING, Karl, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">El Estado Social (Madrid, Colecci=C3=B3n Estudios Constitu= cionales. Centro de Estudios Constitucionales), pp. 46-49. = ;16 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3= =ADculo 118. 17 En efe= cto, en lo atinente a la actividad financiera p=C3=BAblica, el car=C3=A1cte= r social y de derecho del Estado guatemalteco no </p= >supone necesariamente la= gratuidad de los servicios p=C3=BAblicos. La solidaridad, tambi=C3=A9n, se= expresa fiscalmente a trav=C3=A9s del principio de d= istribuci=C3=B3n causal del gasto: la traslaci=C3=B3n de los cost= os p=C3=BAblicos asociados con la realizaci=C3=B3n de ciertas conductas </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">co= ncretas a sus realizadores, dada la funci=C3=B3n de asignaci=C3=B3n de recu= rsos caracter=C3=ADstica del Estado Impositivo. Naturalmente, &#x= a0;para medir a= decuadamente la capacidad contributiva, estos gastos integrar=C3=A1n negati= vamente =E2=80=93como deduccion= es=E2=80=93 la base de c=C3=A1lculo del ISLR. Sentenc= ia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 13 de diciembre de 200= 7, (Procurador de los Derechos Humanos vs. Concejo Municipal de Guatemala,= Expediente 39-2004), p. 12. Consultado el 17 de </p= >diciembre de 2018. Dispo= nible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/813625.39-2004.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;18 CEPAL (2016): Panorama Fiscal d= e Am=C3=A9rica Latina y el Caribe 2016: las finanzas p=C3=BAblicas ante el = desaf=C3=ADo de conciliar austeridad con = crecimiento </spa= n> = eigualdad, </span= > (Santiago, Naciones Unidas), p. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">71. = Disponible &#x= a0;en: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> https:/= /repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/39939/22/S1600111_es.pdf. </s= pan> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">19 = A saber: (i) tasas mar= ginales m=C3=A1ximas reducidas del ISLR personal; (ii) la reducci=C3=B3n de= la base imponible debido a la existencia de amplios beneficios tributario= s y tratamientos diferenciales; (iii) alta concentraci=C3=B3n de la renta; = (iv) el peso relativo de la informalidad y de los peque=C3=B1os contribuye= ntes en el universo recaudatorio; (v) la baja moral tributaria, costos </sp= an> de = cumplimiento y problemas de administraci=C3=B3n tributaria; y (vi) la eleva= da evasi=C3=B3n fiscal. CEPAL (2016), p. 72; LORA </= p>(2008), p. 6; y G=C3=93M= EZ SABA=C3=8DNI, Juan Carlos (2013): Consideraciones metod= ol=C3=B3gicas para medir la evasi=C3=B3n del impuesto sobre la <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt"> renta, p. 3. Disponible en: https://www.cepal.org/sites/defaul= t/files/courses/files/presentacion_gomez_sabaini.pdf. </spa= n>20 CEPAL (2016), pp. 71-72. 21 </s= pan>CEPAL (2016), p. 77; y CIAT: Estimaci=C3=B3n del in= cumplimiento tributario en Am=C3=A9rica Latina 2000-2010, p. 20. Disponible en: &= #xa0;https://= www.cepal.org/ofilac/noticias/paginas/9/49309/Verdi.pdf. </= span>22 ICEFI (2015): Diagn=C3=B3stico y prop= uesta alternativa de hoja de ruta para el rescate y reconstrucci=C3=B3n de = la SAT (Guatemala, ICEFI), p. 9. Disponible </= span>en: &#x= a0;36 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB+ZJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElgQIFyELsW6F+B99SI+NyZEbBFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAADwT35JHgTCxEbxBwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" a= lt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />tendencia podr=C3=AD= a justificar la ca=C3=ADda en la recaudaci=C3=B3n real para octubre de 2015= de -6,4%, equivalente a 0,4% del PIB, pen=C3=BAltima en la regi=C3=B3n despu=C3=A9= s de Per=C3=BA y a pesar de la reforma tributaria que ampli=C3=B3 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>la base imponible, al someter al impuest= o los dividendos, distribuci=C3=B3n de utilidades y ganancias de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >capital.23 </s= pan>Adem=C3=A1s de otras posibles razo= nes, la alta evasi=C3=B3n tributaria en el ISLR es muestra de la <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">ambivalen= cia =C3=A9tica </= span>que, en = los hechos, acompa=C3=B1a a la implementaci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica del sistem= a tributario.24 Al tiempo que p=C3=BAblicamente se repudia la evasi=C3=B3n fisca= l, buena parte de los contribuyentes evade si encuentra &= #xa0;oportunidad de hacerlo,<= /span>25 sin que por ello el evasor deje de exigir del Estado el cumplimiento d= e la &= #xa0;actividad prestacional q= ue justifica al poder en el Estado Social de Derecho,26 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">como si aquel hu= biese = pagado todo el tributo a= l que legalmente estaba obligado.27 En este sentido, se ha identificado = una &#= xa0;rela= ci=C3=B3n directamente proporcional entre progresividad del sistema tributa= rio y moral tributaria, con significativos efectos marginale= s.28 Para remediar una situaci=C3=B3n tal, m=C3=A1s all=C3= =A1 de la viabilidad de un pacto fiscal,29 </sp= an>la posibilidad del incremento </= p>de la recaudaci=C3=B3n tributaria </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>y en consecuencia, de la capacidad del Estado para responder = a las ne= cesidades financieras del Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho</span= >=E2=80=93 </= span>pasa por= un mayor cumplimiento de la ley tributaria, entendida como expresi=C3=B3n de la vo= luntad general orientada, entre otros fines, a los objetivo= s redistributivos y de reducci=C3=B3n de las desigualdades que es caracter= =C3=ADstico del Estado Impositivo, en los t=C3=A9rminos antes expuestos. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Bajo estas premis= as, el Derecho sancionador, sector del ordenamiento que orienta el ejercici= o de la m=C3=A1xima coacci=C3=B3n estatal a la protecci=C3= =B3n de los valores fundamentales de la sociedad, encuentra justificaci=C3=B3n </sp= an>=E2=80=93<= /span>en el c= ontexto del ISLR y, en general, de todo el sistema tributario=E2=80=93 <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">en la necesaria https://icefi.org/sites/default/files/diagno= stico_y_propuesta_de_hoja_de_ruta_para_el_rescate_y_reconstruccion_de_l </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">a_= sat_gt_05-2015.pdf. 23 CEPAL (2016), pp= . 37, 52. 24 OCAMPO P= ONCE, Manuel (2018): =E2=80=9C=C3=89tica y Moral Tributaria: una recuperaci= =C3=B3n del pensamiento cl=C3=A1sico y cristiano = 0;desde la pers= pectiva de Santo Tom=C3=A1s de Aquino=E2=80=9D, en G=C3=93MEZ COTERO, Jos= =C3=A9 de Jes=C3=BAs y BEJAR, Luis Jos=C3=A9 (Edit.), =C3= =89tica y Moral Tributaria <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Thomson Reuters), p. 25; y GIARRIZZO, Victoria y SI= VORI, Juan Sebasti=C3=A1n (2010): =E2=80=9CLa inconsistencia de la moral t= ributaria: El caso de los moralistas evasores=E2=80=9D, P= ecvnia: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias </= p>Econ=C3=B3micas y= Empresariales No. 10 (Universidad de Le=C3=B3n), p. 98. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 25 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Como dice AFTALI=C3=93N, mucha gente que se horrorizar=C3=AD= a al proponerle la comisi=C3=B3n de un delito com=C3=BAn, encuentra = intere= sante la informaci=C3=B3n respecto de esquemas fiscales evasivos. Sobre est= a base es posible identificar, como lo han hecho GIARRIZZO y SIVORI = para el caso argentino, un patr=C3=B3n de comportamiento curioso: si bie= n un nivel alto de cumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias es indicio= de una moral tributaria alta, no necesariamente la conciencia moral </span= > del d= eber de tributar supone un mayor =C3=ADndice de cumplimiento del tributo. A= FTALI=C3=93N, Enrique R. (1959): Derecho Penal <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt"> Econ=C3=B3mico, (Buenos Aires, Editorial Depalma), p. 32, y G= IARRIZZO y SIVORI (2010), pp. 98-99. 26 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >A este respecto, resulta curioso constatar que, contra la creencia general= izada, los gobiernos latinoamericanos dedican al </p= >gasto en educaci=C3=B3n = y salud 6,2% m=C3=A1s recursos fiscales que otras regiones del mundo en des= arrollo. LORA (2008), p. 8. 27 ANZOLA P=C3=89REZ, Oswaldo (1999): =E2=80=9CLa ley tributaria: su = interpretaci=C3=B3n y los medios legales e ilegales para evitar= o reducir sus efectos=E2=80=9D, en Libro Homenaje a Jos= =C3=A9 Andr=C3=A9s Octavio, (Caracas, Ediciones de la Asociaci=C3= =B3n Venezolana de Derecho Tributario),p. 6. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">28= Vid. CASTA=C3=91EDA R= ODR=C3=8DGUEZ, V=C3=ADctor Mauricio (2017): =E2=80=9CLa equidad= del sistema tributario y su relaci=C3=B3n con la moral <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > tributar= ia. Un estudio para Am=C3=A9rica Latina=E2=80=9D, Investig= aci=C3=B3n econ=C3=B3mica, Vol. 76, No. 299 (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xic= o, UNAM), p. 125. 29 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Q= ue en el caso de Guatemala, se dice, ha enfrentado dificultades en la pr=C3= =A1ctica por las profundas desigualdades sociales, am=C3=A9n de otras razo= nes. LORA (2008), pp. 23-24. Ver tambi=C3=A9n ALARC=C3=93N DUQUE, Adolfo Ja= cobo (2012): =E2=80=9CAlgunas consideraciones sobre pol=C3=ADtica fiscal e= n Guatemala=E2=80=9D, Revista Jur=C3=ADdica, No.= 16 (Ciudad de Guatemala, Instituto de Investigaciones <= /span>Jur=C3=ADdicas. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Universidad Rafael Land=C3= =ADvar), p. = 0;95. Disponible </p= >en: </= span>https://www.url.e= du.gt/publicacionesurl/FileCS.ashx?Id=3D40761. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">37 </= span> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAA= nAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJ= REFUeJzt1qERwlAUAMFjQOFogW7Sv0Klh1SAoABExJ+X2a3g5BUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/9xWBwzxrN7VfXUI4x3VvjoCgNkeqwO= GeFVbv5GDMz4ZOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgAv6= AkMIBCLO+IwxAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />protecci=C3=B3n del orden econ=C3=B3mico: la sanci=C3=B3= n es, as=C3=AD, reacci=C3=B3n frente a la violaci=C3=B3n de la norma tribut= aria, = que pone de manifiesto l= a preeminencia del valor protegido por la regla fiscal =E2=80=93el orden econ=C3=B3mi= co, y = l= a solidaridad social instrumentalizada en la distribuci=C3=B3n equitativa d= e las cargas p=C3=BAblicas de acuerdo con la ley=E2=80=93, sirve a su protecci=C3=B3n y exteri= oriza = =E2=80=93por ello=E2=80=93 el mandato estatal de obediencia a la norma. Esta respuesta, la pena, ti= ene siempre lugar a costa del responsable por haber infringido la norma, en= este ca= so, tributaria.30 Las consideraciones previas justifican el= an=C3=A1lisis jur=C3=ADdico del sistema represivo fiscal= de Guatemala, a los efectos de determinar su idoneidad raci= onal para asegurar la protecci=C3=B3n de los valores constitucionales </spa= n> = asociados al = cumplimiento del ISLR en el sistema tributario guatemalteco, como concreci= =C3=B3n =E2=80=93ya se ha <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">dicho<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">de los valores= redistributivos y de justicia encarnados en la conformaci=C3=B3n del Estad= o como Social y Democr=C3=A1tic= o de Derecho. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Para ello, dividi= remos nuestra exposici=C3=B3n sucesiva en dos partes. En la primera secci= =C3=B3n, describiremos las regl= as y principios constitucionales b=C3=A1sicos que fundamentan el ejercicio = del poder sancionador estatal <= /span>=E2=80= =93ius puniendi=E2=80=93 en Guatemala, y su interacci=C3=B3n con los principios fundam= entales del orden = tributario. F= inalmente, en la segunda parte analizaremos la arquitectura legal del siste= ma represivo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">fiscal en Guatemal= a, tanto infraccional31 como delictual,32 y de= scribiremos su interacci=C3=B3n con el ISLR, = de manera de of= recer algunas alternativas jur=C3=ADdicas de soluci=C3=B3n a estos problema= s. = 2. Bases constitucionales del sistema tributario = sancionador guatemalteco Solo las acciones dirigidas racionalmente por la conj= unci=C3=B3n de voluntad y raz=C3=B3n pueden calificarse como humanas.33 </sp= an>De esta manera la libertad, la posibilidad de ejercer la volun= tad en el dise=C3=B1o y ejecuci=C3=B3n = del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB</s= pan>34, se configura como contenido axiol=C3=B3gico esencial de todo orden </sp= an> </sp= an>30 Vid. ROXIN, Claus (1997): Derecho Penal. Parte general. Tomo I. Fundamento= s. La estructura de la teor=C3=ADa del delito, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 81; y JAKOBS, = G=C3=BCnther (1995): Derecho Penal.= Parte General. Fundamentos y Teor=C3=ADa de la Imputaci=C3=B3n<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">, <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">(Madrid, Editorial Marcial P= ons), p. 8. 31 Regulado principalmente = en el T=C3=ADtulo III del Decreto Nro. 6-91 del Congreso de la Rep=C3=BAbli= ca de Guatemala, contentivo del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. </= span>32 Regulado en el Cap=C3=ADtulo IV del T=C3=ADtulo X del = Decreto Nro. 17-73 del Congreso de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Guatemala, contenti= vo del C=C3=B3digo Penal. 33 AQUINO, = (Santo) Tom=C3=A1s de (2001): Summa Teol=C3=B3gica = (Madrid, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos), pp. 755-756. Disponible </sp= an> en:= https://www.dominicos.org/media/uploads/recursos/libros/suma/1.pdf; </span= > y</sp= an>KANT, Immanuel (200= 7): Fundamentaci=C3=B3n de la Metaf=C3=ADsica de las Costumbres</sp= an>, (San Juan de Puerto Rico, Edici=C3=B3n de Pe= dro M. Rosario Barbosa), pp. 60- </s= pan>61. Disponible en:= https://pmrb.net/books/kantfund/fund_metaf_costumbres_vD.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;34 RAWLS, John (1995): <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">Teor=C3=ADa de la Justicia, (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Fondo= de Cultura Econ=C3=B3mica), pp. 370-377; HEGEL, </p= >Georg W. F. (2005): </sp= an>Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filos=C3=B3ficas. =C2= =A7 53. (Madrid, Alianza Editorial), p. 157; y KANT, Inmanuel &#x= a0;(1873): </sp= an>Principios Metaf=C3=ADsicos del Derecho, (Madrid, Li= brer=C3=ADa de Victorino Su=C3=A1rez), p. 42. Disponible en: = 0;http://fama2.= us.es/fde/ocr/2006/principiosMetafisicosKant.pdf. </= p>38= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+dJREFUeJzt1sEJwgAQAMEV4iNCOtH+G/GdDuzBMo6DmQr2uQUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAMOMxHbDEVX2q53QI6/2q73QEALsd0wFLvKp3dU6HsN6dgQMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAYNQf= AqMD92FLjrsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />normativo,35 y como fundamento de la responsabilidad.= 36 En otras palabras, el Derecho es el reino de la libertad realizada a trav=C3= =A9s de la voluntad.37 Sin embargo, la voluntad <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:0.= 05pt">=E2=80=93aunque libre=E2=80=93 no es absoluta. Ella no siempre se da a s=C3=AD misma = su ley, sino <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que a esta le vien= en impuestos determinados l=C3=ADmites heter=C3=B3nomamente,38 </s= pan>en funci=C3=B3n de la libertad en </= span> s=C3=AD, en su vinculaci=C3=B3n con la voluntad, y de= la relaci=C3=B3n del individuo con los dem=C3=A1s. Estos se resumen, </spa= n> </spa= n>a grandes ras= gos, en dos prohibiciones de actuaci=C3=B3n frente a terceros: (i) ejercer = coerci=C3=B3n o restricciones a la libertad, que no est=C3=A9n legitimadas por la = autodeterminaci=C3=B3n de la voluntad ajena, en los casos en los que la dignidad humana39 </span= >lo permite; = y (ii) causar da=C3=B1o.40 Bajo estas premisas, la facultad= de obrar seg=C3=BAn la pulsi=C3=B3n41 o el est=C3=ADmulo =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">y el placer a ellos asociado=E2=80=93 que despierta una dete= rminada representaci=C3=B3n ps=C3=ADquica de un objeto, de manera que deter= mine al sujeto a la acci=C3=B3n= ,42 encuentra l=C3=ADmites racionales en la capac= idad de la conducta, as=C3=AD determinada, de </span= >producir interferencias con el =C3=A1= mbito de libertad de los dem=C3=A1s,43 y, en cons= ecuencia, en la necesidad de su represi=C3=B3n, tanto f=C3=ADsica como psicol=C3=B3= gica.44 En la medida en la que estas barreras al dise=C3=B1o y <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>concreci=C3=B3n d= el =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB deban definirse heter=C3=B3nomamente,<= /span>45 la dignidad humana demanda= el consentimiento del individuo cuya libertad resulta, a= s=C3=AD, coactivamente restringida. Esta idea </span= >contribuye, de= sde luego, a la idea de prevenci=C3=B3n general positiva: estabilizar la fi= delidad al Derecho de 35 HART, H= erbert L. A. (1990): =E2=80=9C=C2=BFExisten los derechos naturales?=E2=80= =9D, Estudios P=C3=BAblicos No. 37, (Santiago, Centro de Estudios &= #xa0;P=C3=BAb= licos de </s= pan>Chile), <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= p. 46. = Disponible &#x= a0;en: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> https:/= /www.cepchile.cl/cep/site/artic/20160303/asocfile/20160303183129/rev37_hart= .pdf. 36 Sea como la posibilidad jur=C3= =ADdica relativa de realizar una determinada conducta o abstenerse de ella,= o servir de garante de la posici=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADd= ica propia o de la de un tercero, dentro de una gama m=C3=A1s o menos ampli= a de posibilidades (responsabilidad-rol); o sea com= o la conciencia y libertad de los actos individuales que permiten ejercer s= u capacidad de elegir, </= p>respecto de su actuar en= cualquier situaci=C3=B3n, en los t=C3=A9rminos descritos previamente (resp= onsabilidad-capacidad); o sea como el v=C3=ADnculo entre la acci=C3=B3n cu= ya consecuencia es jur=C3=ADdicamente regulada y la persona que debe sufrir= , por tal circunstancia, una modificaci=C3=B3n de su stat= us jur=C3=ADdico (responsabilidad-carga). HART, Herbert L. A. (20= 08): Punishment and Responsibility. Essays = in the Philosophy of Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press), pp. 2= 11-215; y WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2014): =E2=80=9CLa responsabilidad tribut= aria=E2=80=9D, en Memorias de las XXVII Jornadas Latinoame= ricanas de Derecho Tributario, Tomo I, (Lima, </= span>ILADT-IPDT), pp. = 567-570. 37 Vid. HEGEL, Georg W. F. (19= 68): Filosof=C3=ADa del Derecho. =C2=A7 4, (Buen= os Aires, Editorial Claridad), p. 47; KANT (2007), p. </spa= n>53; y WEFFE H., Carl= os E. (2007): =E2=80=9CLa tributaci=C3=B3n como expresi=C3=B3n de la eticid= ad en el pensamiento de G. W. F. Hegel=E2=80=9D, </p= >Revista <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt">de &#x= a0;Derec= ho Tributario, No. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">114, = (Caracas, AVDT), p. </span= > 95. Disponible en: https://www.academia.edu/37294122= /La_Tributaci%C3%B3n_como_expresi%C3%B3n_de_la_Eticidad_en_el_pensa = miento= _de_G._W._F._Hegel. 38 KANT (2007), p. = 53. 39 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52; y AN= DRADE RODR=C3=8DGUEZ (2018), p. 42. 40 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= HART (1990), p. 46. 41 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >FREUD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CLas pulsiones y sus destinos=E2=80=9D, en = Obras Completas, Vol. 14, (Buenos Aires, Amorror= tu editores), p. 115. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/1= 4%20-%20Tomo%20XIV.pdf. 42 Vid. KANT (1= 873), pp. 43, 45-46. 43 De all=C3=AD el= postulado contractualista seg=C3=BAn el cual la uni=C3=B3n de las voluntad= es y fuerzas individuales act=C3=BAa como garant=C3=ADa </= span>intercambiable de= la libertad de todos, y fundamenta a la sociedad civil. Vid. FEUERBACH, Pa= ul Anselm (Ritter) von (1826): Lehrbuch des gemeinen in = Deutschland g=C3=BCltigen peinlichen Rechts. =C2=A7 8 (Giessen. V= erlag von Georg Friedrich Heyer), p. 16. Disponible en: https://bit.ly/2FX= j1k3. 44 FEUERBACH (1826), p. 18; y FRE= UD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CLa represi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en Obras Completas, Vol. 14, (Buenos Aires, </span= >Amorrortu editores), = pp. 141-142. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/14%20-%20To= mo%20XIV.pdf. 45 Como m=C3=ADnimo, por = definirse negativamente sobre la base de la libertad ajena. = ;39 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoA= AAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQ= BD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgAAMwLDhAB+owwuCkIYLnietghYAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMBPjunAElf1VOd0hPXe6p5OAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFt9ggQCAqcKOyUAAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />= la poblaci=C3=B3n, y predisponer a la ciudadan=C3=ADa a comportarse seg=C3= =BAn las normas consentidas, para formar la conciencia de la que depende, una vez m= =C3=A1s, la eficacia del Derecho sancionador.46 </s= pan>De ello sur= gen, en nuestra materia, los llamados axiomas del garantismo penal<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, garant=C3=AD= as jur=C3=ADdicas para la afirm= aci=C3=B3n de la responsabilidad sancionadora y de la aplicaci=C3=B3n de la= pena y, en consecuencia, condi= ciones necesarias para sancionar: en su ausencia est=C3=A1 prohibido el cas= tigo.47 Estos son principios, proposiciones fundamentales =E2=80= =93y p= or ello, especialmente importantes=E2=80=93 que definen, sistematizan y condicionan todo un sistema de Derecho, en nue= stro caso, el ordenamiento sancionador.48 = Los principios = sirven a estos prop=C3=B3sitos a trav=C3=A9s de una serie de funciones. Ell= os son, primero, par=C3=A1metros de correcci=C3=B3n del ordenamiento, que le permit= en controlar sus propios excesos o configuraciones injustas; segundo, f=C3=B3rmulas de soluci=C3=B3n de la= s lagunas normativas, fuera del alcance del cuestionado axioma de la plenitud herm= en=C3=A9utica del Derecho, entendido =C3=BAnicamente como un sistema =C2=ABcerrado=C2=BB de reglas; y tercero, mecanismos de justificac= i=C3=B3n de los enunciados normativos que </p= >integran, como reglas, el sistema.</span= >49 En otras palabras, los principios son mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n, que demandan que un determinado valor50 se realice =C2=ABen la m= ayor medida posible, de acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1cticas y jur=C3=ADdica= s existentes=C2=BB.51 2.1. Reserva legal y legalidad punitiva. </= p>De entre estos pr= incipios, la reserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora ocupan lugar primord= ial, como es natural en toda forma de Derecho p=C3=BAblico.52 <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Con ellos, la libertad y la dignidad humanas obtienen una doble protecci=C3=B3= n.53 Primero, en tanto un sistema de represi=C3=B3n heter=C3=B3nomamente= ejercible frente = al acto de terceros que da=C3=B1a, o que constri=C3=B1e la libert= ad propia, permite presuponer que los individuos </s= pan>evitar=C3= =A1n la pulsi=C3=B3n de realizar esas conductas54 para evitar el = disgus= to55 propio de la pena, ampliando as=C3=AD 46 ROXIN = (1997), p. 146. 47 FERRAJOLI, Luigi (20= 01): Derecho y Raz=C3=B3n<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= . Teor=C3=ADa del garantismo penal, (Madrid, Edi= torial Trotta), pp. 92-93. 48 ATIENZA,= Manuel y RUIZ MANERO, Juan (1991): =E2=80=9CSobre principios y reglas=E2= =80=9D, en Doxa, cuadernos de Filos= of=C3=ADa del Derecho, No. 10, pp. 104-105. Disponible en: http://hdl.handle.net/10045/10763= . = 49 WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2018): </span= >Culpabilidad, infracciones tributarias y delitos fiscales= , (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Thomson Reuters), p. </= p>118. </= span>50 Los valores son inicio y fin del Dere= cho, toda vez que de ellos deriva, primero, el ideal </spa= n>del Derecho, que como tal condiciona la elecci=C3=B3n de medios para = su realizaci=C3=B3n; y segundo, el criterio de valoraci=C3=B3n de las soluc= iones de un determinado sistema jur=C3=ADdico, como ya se ha dicho en el t= exto principal. Dicho de otro modo, los principios son la <= /span>expresi=C3=B3n de=C3=B3ntica= =E2=80=93bajo la forma performa= tiva de un mandato=E2=80=93 de los valores. Vid. WEFFE = (2018), pp. 128-129. 51 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">ALEXY, Robert (2011): =E2=80=9CLos derechos fundamentales y el principio = de proporcionalidad=E2=80=9D, Revista Espa=C3=B1ola de Der= echo Constitucional, No. 91 (Madrid, Centro de Est= udios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales), pp. 11-29. Disponible en: = https:= //recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/REDCons/article/view/40010/22639. = 0;52 MOLES CAUBET, Antonio (1991): =E2= =80=9CLecciones de Derecho Administrativo, parte general=E2=80=9D, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Jur=C3=ADdicas y= Pol=C3=ADticas, No. 82 (Caracas, Universidad Central de Venezuel= a), p. 51. Disponible en: http://www.ulpiano.org.ve/revistas/bases/artic/t= exto/RDUCV/82/rucv_1991_82_47-115.pdf. 53 </spa= n>ROXIN (1997), p. 137; y FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 363. </= span>54 Dice FREUD: =E2=80=9C=E2=80=A6la cultura debe ser protegida contra los individuos, y sus </s= pan>normas, instituciones y mandamientos cumplen esa tarea; no s= =C3=B3lo persiguen el fin de establecer cierta distribuci=C3= =B3n de los bienes, sino el de conservarlos=E2=80=9D. FREUD, Sigm= und (1992): =E2=80=9CEl porvenir de una ilusi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en = Obras Completas, Vol. 13 (Buenos Aires, Amorrortu edito= res), p. 6. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/21%20-%20To= mo%20XXI.pdf. 55 KANT = (1873), pp. 42-43; FREUD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CT=C3=B3tem y T= ab=C3=BA=E2=80=9D, en Obras Complet= as, Vol. 13 (Buenos Aires, Amorrortu editores), p. 41. Disponibl= e en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/13%20-%20Tomo%20XIII.pdf <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 40 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cYA= AAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position= :absolute" />el =C3=A1mbito de protecci=C3=B3n individual de la libertad,<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >56 protegiendo los valores fundamentales de la <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">sociedad57 y confiriendo, por esa v=C3=ADa, cierto grado de segurid= ad =E2= =80=93= jur=C3=ADdica, en tanto proveniente del Derecho=E2=80=9358 a= los individuos respecto de la posible amenaza exterior a dichos valores. E= s posible afirmar que la reserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora ofrecen protecci= =C3=B3n con el Derecho sancionador. Adem=C3=A1s, de esta manera el Derecho sancionado= r protege en la medida en la que permite conservar =E2=80=93 reafirmar, incluso=E2=80=93 el discern= imiento de lo que es correcto y lo que no lo es, lo que es leg=C3=ADtimo, y= lo que es injusto.59 En segundo lugar, la r= eserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora protegen al individuo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">del = Derecho sancionador, en la medida en la que la r= epresi=C3=B3n heter=C3=B3noma solo puede darse en condiciones respetuosas de la libertad y la dignidad del transgresor, esto es, solo a= trav=C3=A9s de la habilitaci=C3=B3n previa, = cierta, estricta y escrita contenida e= n la ley, expresi=C3=B3n de la voluntad general empe=C3=B1ada en la tutela = de &#x= a0;los derechos fundamentales: = fuera de este limitado =C3=A1mbito est=C3=A1 prohibido castigar.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">60= Es po= r ello que se <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">ha dicho, con acierto, que el Derecho sancionador estructurado sobre = la base de estos principios constituye la Charta Magna </sp= an>del delinc= uente, garant=C3=ADa de libertad para todos.61 </s= pan>As=C3=AD, e= s posible afirmar apod=C3=ADcticamente que, en la formulaci=C3=B3n principi= sta del Estado democr=C3=A1tico de derecho, no puede haber ni pena sin il=C3=ADcito= =E2= =80=93nulla p=C5=93na sine crimine=E2=80=93 ni il=C3=ADcito sin ley =E2=80=93nullum crimen sine <= /span>= lege.62 De acuerdo con la estructura l=C3=B3gica del apotegma, el poder = punitivo requiere de la ley como condici=C3=B3n necesaria para su ejercicio: la pen= a existir=C3=A1 solo como consecuencia del il=C3=ADcito, y ser=C3=A1 una </= span> medida ret= ributiva, post delictum,<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">6= 3 que = solo castiga por lo que se ha hecho y no por lo que se es, o por <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >lo que se aparenta ser, o por cualquier = otra causa.64 En otras palabras, para la existenc= ia de un il=C3=ADcito y la aplicabilidad de una pena es cond= ici=C3=B3n necesaria la tipificaci=C3=B3n del primero y la prescripci=C3=B3= n de la segunda por la ley penal.65 = El princ= ipio se configura, entonces, como una aut=C3=A9ntica regla de =C2=ABreconoc= imiento=C2=BB en el sentido que al t=C3=A9rmino da HART,66 <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">porque especifica las condiciones y caracter=C3=ADsticas que permit= en identificar a una regla como parte del ordenamiento sancionador:67 </sp= an>solo ser=C3=A1 ley penal aquella que denote previa y <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">56 </span= >FREUD (1992), p. 19; = y ELHART, Ra=C3=BAl: La pena seg=C3=BAn Sigmund Freud. An= =C3=A1lisis y consideraciones, p. 2. Disponible en: &#x= a0;http://www.p= ensamientopenal.com.ar/system/files/2017/06/doctrina45426.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;57 Dice FREUD: =E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'VCQGHN+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">=E2=80=A6la cultura debe ser protegida contra los individuos, y su= s normas, instituciones y mandamientos cumplen esa tarea; no s=C3=B3lo </sp= an> persiguen el fin de establecer cierta distribuci=C3=B3n de los b= ienes, sino el de conservarlos=E2=80=9D. FREUD, Sigmund= (1992), p. 6. Ver tambi=C3=A9n WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2010): Garantismo y Derecho Penal Tributario en Venezuela, (Carcas, E= ditorial Globe), pp. 313-314. 58 Vid. MART=C3=8DNEZ ROLD=C3=81N, Luis y FERN=C3=81NDEZ SU=C3=81RE= Z, Jes=C3=BAs (1999): Curso de Teor= =C3=ADa del Derecho, (Barcelona, Ariel), p. 202. = ;59 FREUD (1992), pp. 39-40; y ELHART, p. 5. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 60 FERRAJOLI </s= pan>concibe al derecho penal como =E2=80=9Cinstrumento = de tutela de los derechos fundamentales, definiendo =C3=A9stos normativamen= te los =C3=A1mbitos y l=C3=ADmites de aqu=C3=A9l en cuanto b= ienes que no est=C3=A1 justificado lesionar ni con los delitos ni con los c= astigos=E2=80=9D. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. = 335. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 61 JIM=C3=89NEZ DE AS=C3=9AA, Luis (1997): </spa= n>La ley y el delito, (Buenos Aires, Abeledo Perrot), pp. 92-93. Basado en las ideas= de VON LISZT, critica el= uso del t=C3=A9rmino. ROXIN (1997), p. 138, en nota al pie. = 0;62 FEUERBACH (1826) =C2=A720, p. 23;= y JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnther (1995): Derecho Penal. Parte Gener= al. Fundamentos y teor=C3=ADa de la imputaci=C3=B3n<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >, (Madrid, Editorial Marcial Pons), p. 79. 63 </= span>FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 368. 64 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">FE= RRAJOLI (2001), p. 369. Sobre el Derecho Sancionador =C2=ABde acto=C2=BB, v= er secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. 65 FERRAJOLI (2= 001), p. 371. 66 HART, Herbert L. A. (1= 998): El Concepto de Derecho, (Buenos Aires, Abe= ledo-Perrot), pp. 117-118. 67 FERRAJOL= I (2001), p. 374. 41 <img src=3D"d= ata:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSV= QICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEo= O9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" = alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />taxativamente las= figuras de il=C3=ADcito y de pena,68 emanada del legislador <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93<= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">=C2=ABmera=C2=BB legalidad, o reserva legal = ;punitiva=E2=80=93 y= construida sobre la base de t=C3=A9rminos de extensi=C3=B3n determinada en= la definici=C3=B3n de las figuras il=C3=ADcitas, para que sea posible su aplicaci= =C3=B3n en el lenguaje judicial como predicados =C2=ABverdaderos=C2=BB </sp= an> </sp= an>de los hecho= s procesalmente comprobados: legalidad punitiva =C2=ABestricta=C2=BB, de ac= uerdo con la cual la pena solo es aplicable con base en la ley.69 </span= > As=C3=AD, la reserva legal punitiva, expresada en la proposici=C3=B3n </sp= an>nul= lum crimen, nulla p=C5=93na sine lege, requiere <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">desdoblarse en var= ias acepciones, o puntos de vista desde los cuales quedan debidamente delim= itado = el =C3=A1mbito material = de aplicaci=C3=B3n del Derecho sancionador (se protege al ciudadano = con el Derecho sancionador) y, al tiempo, resultan salvaguardadas las g= arant=C3=ADas ciudadanas frente al potencial abuso <= /span>del Estado (se protege al ciudad= ano del Derecho sancionador). Estas condiciones se resume= n =E2=80=93 sumariamente=E2=80=93 en el car=C3=A1cter <= /span>previo, cierto, estricto y escrito de la ley penal.70 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&= #xa0;La ley penal debe ser </= span>p= revia a los hechos que pretenden ser juzgados bajo su impe= rio: as=C3=AD, la ley es advertencia,71 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">criterio de disc= ernimiento llamado a influir sobre el ejercicio de la libertad individual, = = desestim= ulando as=C3=AD el dise=C3=B1o y ejecuci=C3=B3n del =C2=ABplan racional de = vida=C2=BB potencialmente da=C3=B1ino de terceros, <= /span>y, en esa forma, f=C3=B3rmula de= prevenci=C3=B3n de la comisi=C3=B3n del acto il=C3=ADcit= o y justificaci=C3=B3n de la retribuci=C3=B3n </spa= n> poster= ior, dada la reprochabilidad de la que se reviste la conducta en raz=C3=B3n de s= u tipificaci=C3=B3n. De ello de= riva la exigencia de la lex scripta: solo en la medida en= la que la norma sancionadora ha sido emitida seg=C3=BAn el = procedimiento de producci=C3=B3n normativa previsto en el ordenamiento, pod= r=C3=A1 esta advertir eficazmente a sus destinatarios, pro= scribi=C3=A9ndose as=C3=AD la posibilidad de castigar consuetudinariamente.72 M=C3=A1xime cuando, com= o se ha dicho precedentemente, las limitaciones a la libertad ciudadana en el dise=C3=B1o y concreci=C3=B3= n del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB suponen, en resguardo de la = = dignidad humana, el consentimiento </= span>de los gobernados: as=C3=AD como en el Derecho tributario no= hay tributaci=C3=B3n sin representaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">no taxation without representation=E2=80=93, en el = Derecho sancionador tampoco: al no haber il=C3=ADcito sin ley, y no haber ley </spa= n>=E2=80=93</= span>en el Es= tado Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho=E2=80=93 sin representaci=C3=B3n, entonces no hay il=C3=ADcito sin representaci=C3= =B3n.<= /span>73 Simul= t=C3=A1neamente, la ley penal debe ser estricta</= span>: la con= ducta punible es solo aquella detalladamente descrita en la ley penal, de modo que la actividad jurisdicci= onal permita =E2=80=93y se limite=E2=80=93 a la verificaci=C3=B3n de la verdad o falsedad f=C3=A1ctica del = enunciado normativo. Esta garant=C3=ADa se desdobla en un triple sentido. <= /span> Por una parte, combinando esta salvaguarda con la de <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lege pr= =C3=A6via, la ley penal es solo aplicable a los hechos precisamente descritos como il=C3= =ADcitos por ella luego de su entrada en vigor; esto es, la = prohibici=C3=B3n de retroactividad contra reo y, consecuencialmente, la <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">ultractividad de la ley penal que deja de= castigar, sea en todo o en parte, como exigencia irrenunciable del Estado = de Derecho.74 En segundo lug= ar, no puede haber una descripci=C3=B3n =C2=ABabierta=C2=BB, gen=C3=A9rica,= que no permita la identificaci=C3=B3n plena de 68 FERR= AJOLI (2001), pp. 377-378. 69 FERRAJOL= I (2001), p. 378. 70 JAKOBS (1995), p. = 88. 71 ROXIN (1997), p. 137. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 72 ROXIN (1997), pp. 140, 159-160: y JAKOBS (199= 5), pp. 88-89, 108-109. 73 ROXIN (1997)= , p. 145; y WEFFE (2010), p. 246. JAKOBS fundamenta solo= parcialmente al nullum crimen et nulla p= =C5=93na sine lege en el principio democr=C3=A1tic= o, dejando a salvo el problema de la retroactividad pro reo, la medida de la pena o la prohibici=C3= =B3n de leyes indeterminadas, en un sentido que, antes que contradecir, pr= ecisa lo dicho en el texto principal JAKOBS (1995), = p. 80. = ;74 FERRAJOLI (2001), pp. 381-382; ROXIN (1997), p. 161= ; y JAKOBS (1995), pp. 111-112, 124-126. 42 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJREFUeJ= zt0LENwlAUwECjpEOskB2zShZjGjoKhqB4fHE3geUCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/sttOmARW3XPL773rl7TEQCsbZ8OWMRRndVjOoT= lPatrOgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+wQcADAQDGk= pAXQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"= position:absolute" />los hechos sancionables a partir de la descripci=C3=B3n norm= ativa,75 lo que proscribe al reenv=C3=ADo indeterminado y a la integraci=C3=B3n = anal=C3=B3gica =E2=80=93o prohibici=C3=B3n de generalizaci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 del Derecho <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">sancionador.76 P= or =C3=BAltimo, el car=C3=A1cter estricto de la ley penal presupone todas l= as dem=C3=A1s garant=C3=ADas, tanto las materiales de materi= alidad de la acci=C3=B3n, lesividad del resultado y culpabilidad, como las = procesales de presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia, carga de la prue= ba y derecho a la defensa, a falta de las cuales no puede = quedar satisfecho.</span= >77 = Como resulta ya evidente, todos estos sentidos del principio reconducen a l= a idea de certeza78 <= /span>como corolario de la seguridad jur=C3=ADdica en el Derecho = sancionador, en forma sustancialmente similar a la de nuestr= a disciplina: as=C3=AD como no hay tributum sine le= ge, no= hay, entonces, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">il=C3=ADcito ni= pena sin lege certa.79 Todas estas premisas fundan al Derecho s= ancionador guatemalteco, tanto general como especial en lo <= /p>tributario, com= o mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n del sistema represivo. As=C3=AD lo consagra= la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, al declarar at=C3=ADpicas a las conductas que = no hayan sido tipificadas y penadas previamente a su realizaci=C3=B3n por la ley,</= span>80 con independencia del sector del ordenamiento en= cargado de la regulaci=C3=B3n de los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos a= s=C3=AD protegidos,81 y la retroactividad de la regulaci=C3=B3n sanciona= dora m=C3=A1s benigna al infractor.82 Otro tanto predica el C=C3=B3digo Penal,= cuando establece discriminadamente las distintas acepciones del principio: = lex pr= =C3=A6via et scripta, en t=C3=A9rminos id=C3=A9nticos a los constitucionales;</sp= an>83 y de lex stricta </= span>et certa, a trav=C3=A9s de la pr= ohibici=C3=B3n de integraci=C3=B3n anal=C3=B3gica en la interpretaci=C3=B3n= y aplicaci=C3=B3n de la ley penal.84 Tambi=C3=A9n el C=C3=B3digo Procesal Pen= al consagra expresamente la lex pr=C3=A6via et scripta,= prohibiendo el inicio del proceso y la imposici=C3=B3n de penas que no hubieren si= do establecidas con anterioridad.85 Por su parte, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario consag= ra la reserva legal punitiva para infracciones y sanciones, incluyendo recargos y multas,86 </spa= n>los procedimientos administrativos y jurisdiccionales sancionad= ores tri= butarios87 y la extinci=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n = penal y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la pena, respecto de las infracciones </spa= n> = tributarias,88 adem=C3=A1s de la prohibici=C3=B3n de analog=C3= =ADa para el establecimiento de infracciones y sanciones tributarias =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lex strict= a et certa=E2=80=9389 y de la garant=C3=ADa de = lex pr=C3=A6via a trav=C3=A9s de la regla= de retroactividad pro reo.90 No obstante, el C=C3=B3digo Tributa= rio condiciona la operatividad pr=C3=A1ctica de la retroactividad <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">pro reo = a la ausencia de = cosa juzgada formal, administrativa o jud= icial, respecto del caso. En nuestra opini=C3=B3n ello &= #xa0;e= s inconstitucional, pues contradic= e, por limitativo, el car=C3=A1cter absoluto del mandato de la Constituci= =C3=B3n91 75 JAKOBS (1995), p. = 95. 76 JAKOBS (1995), p. 100. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 77 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 380. </= span>78 ROXIN (1997), p. 138; y JAKOBS (1995), pp. 81-82. </sp= an> 79 WEFFE (2010), pp. 244-245. &#x= a0;80 Art=C3=ADculo 17, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica= de Guatemala. 81 Lo q= ue, evidentemente, incluye a la tributaci=C3=B3n como objeto fundamental de= protecci=C3=B3n del Derecho sancionador econ=C3=B3mico. As=C3=AD lo confi= rma el art=C3=ADculo 239, inciso f) de la Constituci=C3=B3n, que somete a l= a reserva de ley dictada por el Congreso la tipificaci=C3=B3n de las infra= cciones y sanciones tributarias. 82 GUA= TEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 15. = 83 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 1 y 2. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">84 GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 7. <= /span>85 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos= 1 y 2. 86 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribu= tario, art=C3=ADculo 3.4. 87 GUATEMAL= A, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 3.5. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">88 = GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 3.7. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;89 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADc= ulo 5. 90 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, art=C3=ADculos 7.3 y 66. 91 GUATE= MALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 15. </= span>43 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgAAMwLDhAB+owwuCkIYLnietghYAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMBPjunAElf1VOd0hPXe6p5OAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFt9ggQCAqcKOyUAAAAASUVORK= 5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />al respecto: cuando cualquier ley posterior al hecho ca= stigado =E2=80=93incluso si ha sido derogada=E2=80=93 sea m=C3=A1s <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :-0.05pt"> <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">beneficiosa para el infractor, =C3=A9sta deber=C3=A1 aplicarse </sp= an>tot= almente y sin condiciones al castigo del hecho.92 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">2.2. Proporcionalidad. </p= >Como ya se ha dicho,93 </span= >los principi= os son mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n, que demandan que un determinado <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >valor94 se realice =C2=ABen la= mayor medida posible, de acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1cticas y jur= =C3=ADdicas existentes=C2=BB.95 Esa estimaci=C3=B3n de la medida de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">realizaci= =C3=B3n plausible del valor, en el contexto de la <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">concreci=C3=B3n = pr=C3=A1ctica del Derecho,96 es la esencia del concepto de proporcionali= dad, que est=C3=A1 conformado p= or tres subprincipios: idoneidad, necesidad y proporcionalidad en sentido e= stricto. De un lado, los princi= pios de idoneidad y necesidad responden a la necesaria estimaci=C3=B3n de l= as &#x= a0;posib= ilidades f=C3=A1cticas de realizaci=C3=B3n de una determinada acci=C3=B3n, = en t=C3=A9rminos asimilables a los del = =C3=B3ptimo de Pareto.97 </span= >Del otro, la proporcionalidad stricto sensu a= tiende a las posibilidades jur=C3=ADdicas de = concreci=C3=B3n de los valores en la m= ayor medida posible.98 El subprincipio de idoneidad se refiere a la racionalidad = teleol=C3=B3gica, o lo que es lo mismo, a la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos por el sistema y los medi= os ordenados para su consecuci=C3=B3n, excluy=C3=A9ndose a fortiori el empleo de aquellos mecanismos que = obstruyan, o que alcancen en menor medida, la realizaci=C3=B3n de estos objetivos. = Por su parte, el subprincipio de necesidad representa a la racionalidad </= span>&= #xa0;axiol=C3=B3gica: la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos, los medios u= tilizados y los valores que, en estas circunstancias, ven comprometida su concreci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica. Ello d= emanda del mecanismo para la regulaci=C3=B3n de una situaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica qu= e se logre el principio que inspira a la norma en la mayor medida <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">posible, con </sp= an>la menor afectaci=C3=B3n posible de ot= ros valores fundamentales. As=C3=AD, entre dos medios igualmente <sp= an class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">id=C3=B3neos para lograr la realizaci=C3=B3n del valor expresado de=C3= =B3nticamente en un principio P1, se debe elegir aqu=C3=A9l que sea menos lesivo frente a otro principi= o P2, que tambi=C3=A9n forma parte del ordenamiento, en 92 </s= pan>En el =C3=BAnico caso del que tenemos conocimiento en el que la Cort= e de Constitucionalidad haya tratado judicialmente el </spa= n>tema, esta no entr= =C3=B3 al conocimiento de la inconstitucionalidad que aqu=C3=AD se alega, s= obre la base de defectos formales de la impugnaci=C3=B3n. Sentencia de la= Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 27 de enero de 2015, (Wapa, S.= A., en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad contra el art=C3=ADculo 66 del= C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Expediente 4346-2013). Disponible en: <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;http://143.= 208.58.124/Sentencias/830007.4346-2013.pdf. Entendemos que, a nivel de tesi= s de grado, existe pronunciamiento en Guatemala en un sentido similar al d= el texto principal. Vid. AMADO PELLECER, Claudia Mar=C3=ADa = ;(1999): </span= >An=C3=A1lisis cr=C3=ADtico de la inconstitucionalidad del Art=C3= =ADculo 66 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Implicaciones de la irretroactividad= en el tratamiento de figuras contrav= encionales del derecho penal com=C3=BAn y el derecho tributario administrat= ivo-sancionador, (Ciudad de Guatemala, </p= >Universidad Francisco Ma= rroqu=C3=ADn), pp.49. 93 Ver Secci=C3= =B3n 2. 94 &#= xa0;Los valores= son inicio y fin del Derecho, toda vez que de ellos deriva, primero, el </= span>ideal del Derecho, que como tal </= span>condiciona la ele= cci=C3=B3n de medios para su realizaci=C3=B3n; y segundo, el criterio de va= loraci=C3=B3n de las soluciones de un determinado sistema jur=C3=ADdico,= como ya se ha dicho en el texto principal. Dicho de otro modo, los princip= ios son la expresi=C3=B3n de=C3=B3ntica =E2=80=93</sp= an>bajo la forma performativa de un mandato=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de los valores. Vid. WEFFE (2018), pp. 128-129. </p= >95 ALEXY, Robert (2001): =E2=80=9CLos derechos f= undamentales y el principio de proporcionalidad=E2=80=9D, = Revista Espa=C3=B1ola de Derecho Constitucional, N= o. 91 (Madrid, Centro de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales), pp. 1= 1-29. Disponible en: https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/REDCons/article/view= /40010/22639. 96 ALEXY= , Robert (2001): Teor=C3=ADa de los Derechos Fundamentales= , (Madrid, Centro de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Madrid), p. 138. 97 En t=C3=A9rminos g= enerales, una situaci=C3=B3n dada es =C3=B3ptima en el sentido de P<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt"= >ARETO si, en ella, no es posible mejorar la situaci=C3=B3n </spa= n> de u= no de los intervinientes sin desmejorar la del otro. Vid. STIGLITZ, Joseph = E. (2003): Econom=C3=ADa del Sector P=C3=BAblico<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= , = (Barcelona, Antoni Bosch Editor), p. 69. 98 </= span>ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 p. 13. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">44 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base6= 4,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwS= FlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCA= j3h6cYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"p= osition:absolute" />condiciones ideales, si existe un medio que intervenga en men= or medida y que sea igualmente id=C3=B3neo, ser=C3=A1 posible realizar una posici=C3=B3n sin tener que per= judicar a la otra.99 = Aunado a estas dos primeras manifestaciones del juicio de raciona= lidad, a las que es posible calificar como de =C3=ADndole f=C3=A1ctica, la <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">ponderaci=C3=B3n introduce el criterio de distinci=C3=B3n = jur=C3= =ADdica de las posibilidades </span= >racionales de actuaci=C3=B3n en los c= asos en los que los principios P1 y P<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">2</= span>, coinci= dentes en la regulaci=C3=B3n de una determinada situaci=C3=B3n f=C3=A1ctica, se con= tradicen entre s=C3=AD. En este caso, la ponderaci=C3=B3n supone una </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">relaci=C3=B3n = de proporcionalidad inversa entre = la afectaci=C3=B3n de un valor y la satisfacci=C3=B3n del otro, de modo que= cuanto = mayor es el grado de insatisfacci=C3=B3n de P1, tanto mayor tiene que = ser la importancia de la satisf= acci=C3=B3n de P2.100 En consecuencia, la elecci=C3=B3n de cu=C3=A1l = es la soluci=C3=B3n predominante, =C2=ABde acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1ctica= s y jur=C3=ADdicas existentes=C2=BB, pasa por la fundamentaci=C3=B3n racion= al del proceso ps=C3=ADquico que conduce a la determinaci=C3=B3n del enunciado de= preferencia; esto es, a las distintas formas de argumentaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica, = lo que es perfectamente controlable racionalmente y sirve, adem=C3=A1s, com= o base para la motivaci=C3=B3n de la sentencia, en tanto dis= curso racional pr=C3=A1ctico.101 Sobre esta base, es posibl= e predicar la relaci=C3=B3n necesaria102 entre el conjunto de valores qu= e = 0;fundamentan axiol=C3=B3gicame= nte al Derecho, cuya protecci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 encomendada al Derecho </spa= n> </spa= n>Sancionador, y el par=C3=A1metro de = medida de la realizaci=C3=B3n plausible de estos valores,= teniendo presente el car=C3=A1cter, tambi=C3=A9n fundamenta= l, de los derechos de la persona que ha dirigido concreta y = contingentemente su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB hacia el ejercicio in= justo de la coerci=C3=B3n o restricciones a <= /p>la libertad de terceros, o a causar da= =C3=B1o.103 2.2.1. Prim= er subprincipio: idoneidad. Nullum crimen sine iniuria. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Lesividad y prot= ecci=C3=B3n exclusiva de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos. = ;La </s= pan>racionalidad teleol=C3=B3gica del Der= echo Sancionador =E2=80=93esto es, su idoneidad=E2=80=93 viene dada por el <= /span>fin de la = ;pena, concepto fundamental de = la disciplina.104 La pena, consecuencia l=C3=B3gica del delito, es acci= =C3=B3n que repele un ataque a la causa de la acci=C3=B3n perturbadora del bien jur= =C3=ADdico. Se dirige contra el infractor, al </span= >99 Vid. ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 pp. 13-14; ALEXY (2001): <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">Teor=C3=ADa=E2=80=A6 pp. 240-245; ZACCARIA, Giuse= ppe (2004): Raz=C3=B3n = jur=C3=ADdica e i= nterpretaci=C3=B3n, (Madrid, Thomson-Civitas), pp. 39-40; ROMERO-= MUCI, Humberto (2005): La racionalidad del sistema = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">de correcci=C3=B3n monetaria fiscal, (Carcas, Editorial J= ur=C3=ADdica Venezolana), pp. 40-44; ROMERO-MUCI, Humberto (2005); <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt; letter-spacing:0.15pt">Lo = r= acional y lo irracional de los intereses moratorios en el C=C3=B3digo Org= =C3=A1nico Tributario, (Carcas, AVDT), pp. 5-7; WEFFE H., Carlos = E. (2005): =E2=80=9CLa racionalidad de la armonizaci=C3=B3n tributaria=E2= =80=9D, Revista de Derecho Tributario, No. 108 (= Carcas, AVDT), pp. 10-12, 29-30. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/in= dex.php/component/k2/item/373-la-racionalidad-de-la-armonizacion- <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > tributar= ia-revista-de-derecho-tributario-n-108-asociacion-venezolana-de-derecho-tri= butario-2005; y WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2001): =E2=80=9CArmonizaci=C3=B3n, si= stema tributario e il=C3=ADcitos tributarios=E2=80=9D, en = X Jornadas Venezolanas de Derecho Tributario, Tomo II, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Carcas,= AVDT), pp. 373-374. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index.php/compo= nent/k2/item/423- armonizacion-sistema-tributario-e-ilicitos-tributarios. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 ALEXY (2001): Teor= =C3=ADa=E2=80=A6 pp. 157, 161; ALEXY (2001): D= erechos=E2=80=A6 p. 15; y WEFFE = (2018), p. 124. 101 GUASTINI, Riccardo = (1999): Distinguiendo. Ensayos de T= eor=C3=ADa y Metateor=C3=ADa del Derecho (Barcelona, Gedisa Edito= rial), p. 167; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 125-126. 102 = ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 pp. 28= -29. 103 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1= . = 104 Al punto que ella le da nombre a = la disciplina y determina, con su presencia o ausencia, la pertenencia de u= na determinada regulaci=C3=B3n al =C3=A1mbito de es= ta rama jur=C3=ADdica. WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2016): =E2=80=9CInflaci=C3=B3n = y Derecho Penal Tributario. Las </sp= an>sanciones tributari= as como obligaciones =E2=80=98de valor=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D, = Revista de Derecho Tributario No. 150 (Carcas, AVDT), = p. 72. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index.php/component/k2/ite= m/409-inflacion-y-derecho-penal-tributario-las-sanciones- <= /span>tributarias-como= -obligaciones-de-valor. 45 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:43"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5= QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D= "808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />da=C3=B1ar o = destruir los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos de que aqu=C3=A9l es titular. As=C3=AD, = la pena es protecci=C3=B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos instrumentada a trav=C3=A9s del= da=C3=B1o a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos,105 que para s= er id=C3=B3nea debe ser =E2=80=9Cuna reacci=C3=B3n adecuada que tiende a restablece= r ese equilibrio lesionado, a la afirmaci=C3=B3n del orden que ha <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>sido transgredido, desequilibrio o desor= den que materializa el da=C3=B1o social que produce el delito=E2=80=9D.</sp= an>106 En este contexto, la proporcionalidad =E2=80=93bajo la forma de la idon= eidad= =E2=80=93 responde a la pregunta: =C2=BFpuede protegerse al bien jur=C3=ADdico sin acud= ir al Derecho Sancionador? La respuesta define al principi= o de lesividad, o de ofensividad del acto107</span= >. La pena, l= a respuesta por excelencia del Derecho Sancionador, es solo id=C3=B3nea como respuesta a la conducta que= menoscaba el bien jur=C3=ADdico. Como inescindible consecuencia, de ello se sigue que no es necesaria la = pena sin que haya previamente una lesi=C3=B3n de entidad apreciable al bien jur=C3= =ADdico: nullum crimen sine iniuria. Dicho claramente, las prohibiciones = = sancionadoras solo tienen sentido </sp= an>=E2=80=93esto es, son id=C3=B3neas<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 = en la medida = en la que se destinan a las acciones reprobables por representar los m=C3=A1s grave= s costos individuales y sociales, en funci=C3=B3n de sus &= #xa0;efectos lesivos para ter= ceros. A contrario, se sigue que el Derecho Sancionador n= o es id=C3=B3neo cuando no hay = tal lesividad, aun y cuando la conducta en cuesti=C3=B3n pueda calificarse = como =C2=ABmala=C2=BB:108 toda actitud <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o comportamiento n= o lesivo para terceros es inocuo,= irrelevante para el Derecho Sancionador.109 Dicho en otras palabras: para ser= id=C3=B3neo, el Derecho Sancionador solo debe proteger bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos. E incluso, no todos los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos ameritan la pro= tecci=C3=B3n del Derecho Sancionador, sino que solo ser=C3=A1n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">tutelados aquellos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos cu= ya guarda sea necesaria, como veremos,110 </spa= n>para resgua= rdar la = convivencia.111 La tarea de identificaci=C3=B3n de estos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos</sp= an>112 parte, en primer lugar, de la Constituci=C3=B3n. El texto expresa y regula el esquema de valores que = sirve de base fundamental a una sociedad; los valores, ya se ha dicho en otra ocasi=C3=B3n, son sin=C3= =B3nimo de lo bueno.113 As=C3=AD, f=C3=A1cil es deduci= r que la protecci=C3=B3n sancionadora se extender=C3=A1 a los valores que, como tal= es, han sido positivizados a trav=C3=A9s de la Carta.114 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= Ello no es suficiente, s= in embargo, para calificar a un determinado =C2=ABbien=C2=BB como =C2=ABjur= =C3=ADdico=C2=BB, en el sentido del Derecho Sancionador: para ello, es necesaria primero una toma de postu= ra respecto de problemas esenciales al orden social. En el Estado Social y Democr= =C3=A1tico de Derecho, forma pol=C3=ADtica que por <= /span>decisi=C3=B3n fundamental se ha = dado Guatemala,115 la primac=C3=ADa la tiene la protecci=C3=B3n de la pe= rsona humana <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">y su dignidad,</sp= an>116 =E2=80=9Ccomo sujeto y fin del orden social</spa= n>=E2=80=9D.<= /span>117 Consecuencialmente, ello determina que los valores que prima facie deben gozar de = la protecci=C3=B3n del Derecho Sancionador son los bienes individuales, los= 105 WEFFE (2016), p. 72; y VON = LISZT (1994), p. 77. 106 ARTEAGA S=C3= =81NCHEZ, Alberto (2009): Derecho Penal Venezolano<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">, (Caracas, Ediciones Liber), pp. 567, 569. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">107= FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 93. 108 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 473. 109 FERRAJOL= I (2001), pp. 464-465. 110 Ver Secci= =C3=B3n 2.2.2. 111 MIR PUIG, Santiago (= 1994): El Derecho Penal en el Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1= tico de Derecho, (Barcelona, Editorial Ariel), p. = ;159; y GONZ=C3= =81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX, Eduardo (2003): Apuntes de Der= echo Penal Guatemalteco, (Guatemala, Fundaci=C3=B3n &#x= a0;Myrna </span= > Mack)= , = p. </spa= n>19. = Disponible </sp= an> en:= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">http://www.myrnamack.org.gt/images/publicaciones_fmm/Apuntes%20de%20Derec= ho%20Penal.pdf. 112 MIR PUIG (1994), p.= 163; ROXIN (1997), pp. 56-58. 113 WEFF= E (2018), p. 119; y ALEXY (2001): Teor=C3=ADa=E2= =80=A6 pp. 140-141. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">114 Vid. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 472. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">115 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 1. </= span>116 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=AD= culos 1 y 4. 117 GUATEMALA, Constituci= =C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, Pre=C3=A1mbulo. 46 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJ= ztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe= 6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width= =3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que afectan en may= or medida y m=C3=A1s directamente a los individuos.118 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">As=C3=AD, dado qu= e el Derecho <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sancionador est=C3= =A1 a la orden del individuo y no al rev=C3=A9s, los intereses colectivos intere= san al Derecho <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sancionador en l= a medida en la que interfieren con el =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB ind= ividual, siempre desde la persp= ectiva de la lesividad de la conducta que, como criterio rector, informa la noci= =C3=B3n de idoneidad =E2=80=93 </s= pan> y por esta = v=C3=ADa, la de proporcionalidad=E2=80=93 en el Derecho Sancionador.119 </spa= n> 2.2.2. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </sp= an>Segundo= subprincipio: necesidad. Nullum crimen sine </= span>neces= sitate. Subsidiariedad, m=C3=ADnima intervenci=C3=B3n. Materialidad de la <= /span> acci=C3=B3n, o Derecho Sancionador =C2=ABde acto=C2= =BB. Una vez determinado qu=C3=A9 se debe castigar = =E2=80=93como se ha visto, funci=C3=B3n del subprincipio de idoneidad</= span>=E2=80= =93 &#= xa0;, la necesidad resuelve la = cuesti=C3=B3n del c=C3=B3mo castigar, tomando en consider= aci=C3=B3n la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos =E2=80=93la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes= jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93, los medios utilizados =E2=80=93la pena<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 <= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">y los restantes valores en juego, en especial, la libertad y la dignidad d= el infractor.120 En otras palabras, =C2=BFde qu=C3=A9 manera <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = castigar afectando lo menos posible </s= pan>los dem= =C3=A1s valores en juego? De ello se sigue, como condici=C3=B3n, el = = examen de </spa= n>racionalidad axiol=C3=B3gica, o en otras palabras, del subprin= cipio de necesidad, una de las pa= rtes en la que se descompone el =C2=ABmandato de optimizaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB de la pro= porcionalidad.121 El subprincipio de necesidad se manifiesta en el Derecho Sancion= ador de varias maneras, complementarias entre s=C3=AD. En primer lugar, desde el pu= nto de vista material axiol=C3=B3gico la pena es </s= pan>necesariamente subsidiaria, el </s= pan>=C3=BAltimo recurso a utilizarse cuando ninguna otra medida = jur=C3=ADdica122 est=C3=A1 en &= #xa0;capacidad de ofrecer una= respuesta eficiente al da=C3=B1o que supone el hecho il=C3=ADcito. Por ese= ncia, la intervenci=C3=B3n sanc= ionadora =E2=80=9Csupone una intromisi=C3=B3n del E= stado en la esfera de libertad del ciudadano, que solo resulta tole= rable cuando es estrictamente necesaria =E2=80=93inevitable=E2=80=93 </= span>p= ara la protecci=C3=B3n del mismo ciudadano=E2=80=9D,</spa= n>123 de modo que =E2=80=93al mismo tiempo=E2=80=93 se proteja al ciudadano <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:-0.05pt">con y del Derecho Sancionador, en el sentido anotado previamente.124 </= p>118 MIR PUIG (1994), p. 164. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal"> 119 Sin embargo, esta es una= tarea llena de problemas. En opini=C3=B3n de FERRAJOLI<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">,= la tarea de definir del bien jur=C3=ADdico en <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">sentido positivo -esto es, = prefiguradora del =C2=ABqu=C3=A9 castigar=C2=BB- supone, o bien un car=C3= =A1cter expansivo contradictorio con la idea </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">de= subsidiariedad expuesta en el texto principal, o bien excesiva <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">estrechez, por su fuerte contenido individualista. En el ca= so de estas =C3=BAltimas resalta una consecuencia: lo restringido de su co= ncepci=C3=B3n de bien jur=C3=ADdico compromete la posibilidad de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= justific= ar racionalmente el bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de protecci=C3=B3n por= el delito de defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria, entre otros </spa= n>ejemplos. Vid. FERRA= JOLI (2001), p. 471. 120 = As=C3=AD lo hemos afirmado en una ocasi=C3=B3n previa: =E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Todo ser humano =E2=80=93<= /span>incluso aquel de quien es predicable la condici=C3=B3n de i= nfractor seg=C3=BAn la norma primaria de Kelsen=E2=80=93 tiene derecho a que se considere su estatus = jur=C3=ADdico en funci=C3=B3n del ejercicio de su proyecto de vida, de su <= /span> capacidad de elegir y con referencia al bien-en-com=C3=BAn qu= e justifica axiol=C3=B3gicamente a las regulaciones jur=C3=ADdicas. Estos c= onceptos =E2=80=93= lejos de ser contradictorios=E2=80=93 </spa= n>son complementarios, dado que la realizaci=C3=B3n del bien com= =C3=BAn depende directamente del respeto del bienestar individual de cada <= /span> uno de los integrantes de la comunidad, lo que tambi=C3=A9n i= ncluye necesariamente =E2=80=93</spa= n>como se ha dicho=E2=80=93 a= l sujeto a quien se dirige la conminaci=C3=B3n de </= span>la norma p= rimaria, en los t=C3=A9rminos previamente expuestos=E2=80=9D. WEF= FE (2018), p. 154. 121 Vid. Sentencia d= e la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 7 de junio de 2013 (Colegi= o de Abogados y Notarios de Guatemala, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionali= dad contra varios art=C3=ADculos de las Disposiciones para el Fortalecimien= to del Sistema Tributario y el Combate a la Defraudaci=C3=B3n y al Contrab= ando, Expediente 1898-2012), p. 4. Disponible en: </= p>http://143.208.58.124/Se= ntencias/822861.1898-2012.pdf. 122 Por = naturaleza menos invasiva, pues la pena encarna el poder de la fuerza estat= al ejercida sobre el individuo. 123 MIR PUIG (1994), p. 151. 124 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. </= span>47 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2= u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" s= tyle=3D"position:absolute" />Esta idea es la que, tradicio= nalmente, se identifica como principio de subsidiariedad, o de m=C3=ADnima </sp= an>&#x= a0;intervenci=C3=B3n, del Derecho Sancionador. En efecto, c= onsiderando que este constituye la medida m=C3=A1s <= /span>radical d= e defensa de los valores esenciales a la convivencia social, que como tales= son base axiol=C3=B3gica del ordenamiento, e incluso del po= der que para su protecci=C3=B3n se ejerce.125 Esa protecci=C3=B3n debe= = ;despleg= arse =C3=BAnicamente en casos extremos, cuando ya no queda otra salida pos= ible, en una forma solo = justificable en tanto que, como se ha di= cho, el Derecho Sancionador se dirija =E2=80=93cualitativamente=E2=80=93 a la protecci=C3=B3n exclusiva de bienes jur=C3=ADdico= s, y en la medida en la que =E2=80=93cuantitativamente=E2=80=93 la respuesta= (pena) corresponda racionalmente con la agresi=C3=B3n sufri= da por aquellos, en proporci=C3=B3n con la medida </= span>de la responsabilidad personal de= quien ha cometido el hecho.126 As=C3=AD, la proporcionalidad <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= entendida </s= pan> </s= pan>como necesidad=E2=80=93 supone la pond= eraci=C3=B3n de bienes =E2=80=9Cen el sentido de un= a prohibici=C3=B3n de exceso: los da=C3=B1os y = 0;peligros que parten del autor deben soportarse, a pesar del inter=C3=A9s p= reventivo en evitarlos, cuando son menores que la &= #xa0;p=C3=A9rdida de l= ibertad que conllevar=C3=ADa la medida para el implicado=E2=80=9D.127 <= /span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Ya lo dec=C3=ADa = la Declaraci=C3=B3n de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano de 1789: la = ley =E2=80=9Cs=C3=B3lo debe establecer penas estricta y evidentemente nece= sarias=E2=80=9D128. La intervenc= i=C3=B3n que supone el Derecho Sancionador </= p>en la esfera individual solo se justific= a en la medida en la que, como se ha dicho, este se dirija exclusivamente a la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes j= ur=C3=ADdicos. Es en el tipo de protecci=C3=B3n </s= pan>que se br= inda a esos bienes =E2=80=93</s= pan>la pena</= span>=E2=80= =93 y no en la esencia de estos bienes (por ejemplo, el or= den econ=C3=B3mico y la funci=C3=B3n de = determinaci=C3=B3= n y recaudaci=C3=B3n en el Derecho Tributario) que se halla la esencia del = Derecho Sancionador, y en consecuencia el forzoso car=C3=A1c= ter complementario, secundario, subsidiario, de este.129 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= E= n este sentido, para que pueda predicarse de la pena su car=C3=A1cter =C2= =ABestricto=C2=BB y =C2=ABevidentemente = necesario=C2=BB, es preciso que esta sea= consecuencia de una conducta vinculada causalmente =E2=80=93esto es, imputable=E2=80=93 a la pauta de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lesivida= d, comentada previamente.130 L= os il=C3=ADcitos, como presupuesto de la = sanci=C3=B3n, no pueden estar referidos = al fuero interno: solo aquella conducta emp=C3=ADricamente observable </spa= n> </spa= n>=E2=80=93y en consecuencia, susceptible de= descripci=C3=B3n por la ley penal=E2=80=93 es apta para fundar el reproche <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = sancionador.131 En otras palabras, la pena debe constituir una respuesta frente a un act= o y no= frente a una = persona, en ta= nto que es la conducta =E2=80=93y no la persona en s=C3=AD, por = su dignidad inherente=E2=80=93132 la que es capaz </spa= n> </spa= n>de producir el da=C3=B1o al bien jur= =C3=ADdico que es relevante al Derecho Sancionador para determinar su </spa= n> </spa= n>proporcionali= dad, en el sentido expresado. As=C3=AD definido, el Derecho Sancionador definido co= nforme al principio de proporcionalidad es =C2=ABde acto=C2=BB, <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = y no =C2=ABde aut= or=C2=BB. No es la personalidad del infractor la relevante a los fines de l= a protecci=C3=B3n exclusiva, id=C3=B3nea y necesaria =E2=80=93en una pal= abra, proporcional=E2=80=93 de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos: nadie, por el solo hecho de ser, = = 125 El ius puni= endi. Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. 126 </spa= n>Cfr. MIR PUIG (1994), p. 167; y FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 465. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;127 ROXIN (1997), p. 106. </= p>128 DECLARACI=C3=93N DE LOS DERECHOS DEL HOMBRE Y DEL CIUDADANO = (1789), art=C3=ADculo 8. Disponible en: https://www.conseil-constitutionn= el.fr/sites/default/files/as/root/bank_mm/espagnol/es_ddhc.pdf. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;129 DE RIVACOBA, Manuel (1994): =E2=80=9CFranz v= on Liszt y el =E2=80=98Programa de Marburgo=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D, en VON LISZT= , Franz, La idea del fin en el Derecho Penal (Ciudad de M=C3= =A9xico, Universidad Nacional Aut=C3=B3noma de M=C3=A9xico =E2=80= =93 Universidad de Valpara=C3=ADso de = Chile), p. 46. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 130 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1.1. </= span>131 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 480. = 132 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52. 48 </span= > <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAA= AMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFU= eJztzkENgEAQALFBATYQiQCM4eveYGBzSaugBQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HdMB= zZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAjwX+AgICYbAd3wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>lesiona o pone en peligro concreto a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos.</sp= an>133 Una concepci=C3=B3n tal instrumentaliza al individuo, y por tanto es contradicto= ria con la dignidad que le es inherente y, por supuesto, con la <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> racionalidad de un = Derecho Sancionador garantista.134 Por ello se ha= dicho, con acierto, que el principio de materialidad de la acci=C3=B3n es el coraz= =C3=B3n del garantismo sancionador, y que da valor pol=C3=ADtico y <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>consistencia l= =C3=B3gica y jur=C3=ADdica a gran parte de las dem=C3=A1s garant=C3=ADas.</= span>135 = 2.2.3. Tercer = </= span>subpr= incipio: proporcionalidad &#= xa0;stricto </= p>sensu. Razonabilidad de la pena. En tercer lugar =E2=80=93y en sentido estricto=E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la proporcionalid= ad supone el juicio de ponderaci=C3=B3n. Esta apreciaci=C3=B3n se basa en el balance entre las alternativa= s racionales de ejercicio del ius puniendi, para que, por una parte, se evite el ejercicio del poder punitivo c= uando los da=C3=B1os a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos derivados de su uso (en espec=C3=ADfic= o, los del infractor) exceden los beneficios emanados de la protecci=C3=B3n= de los bienes jur=C3=ADdico-sancionadores. Esta forma de proporcionalidad= 136 es a la que nos hemos referido previamente, <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">bajo las formas de lesividad137 y m=C3=ADnima intervenci=C3=B3n</= span>138 respectivamente. Por su parte, la proporcionalidad tamb= i=C3=A9n implica la relaci=C3=B3n de correspondencia entre la magnitud del = da=C3=B1o infligido al bien jur= =C3=ADdico por el autor y la sanci=C3=B3n que este recibe, tomando en cuent= a todas las circunstancias f=C3= =A1cticas =E2=80=93objeto de los juicios de idoneidad y necesida= d=E2= =80=93 y jur=C3=ADdicas, resumidas en las necesidades de prevenci=C3=B3n, tanto general como especial, y la culp= abilidad. As=C3=AD, es criterio base para la determinaci=C3=B3n <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = de la pena que es= ta debe ser proporcional a la gravedad del hecho cometido.139 </sp= an> Esta relaci=C3=B3n de congruencia entre entidad de la infracci=C3=B3n y = la de la sanci=C3=B3n debe establecerse con <= /p>base en dos par=C3=A1metros esenciales.= 140 El primero es la =C2=ABnocividad social=C2=BB= del hecho, sobre la se estructuran las finalidades prevent= ivas d= e la pena, tanto general como especial:141 es necesario que la pena </= span> </= span>disuada, tanto al infractor com= o a terceros, de replicar el hecho punible, y que =E2=80=93adem=C3=A1s=E2=80=93 afirme la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>vigencia de la no= rma.142 El segundo, como ya se ha dicho, es el de= la congruencia entre la pena y la gravedad del hecho cometido, que complementa </s= pan>=E2=80=93= natura= lmente= =E2=80=93 al principio de culpabilidad: solo la <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">conducta que es </= span>r= eprochable es punible, y el castigo se determinar=C3=A1, l= =C3=B3gicamente, a trav=C3=A9s de una relaci=C3=B3n = de simet= r=C3=ADa directa entre el da=C3=B1o realizado al bien jur=C3=ADdico y la sa= nci=C3=B3n,143 de modo que =E2=80=93siguiendo la <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 133 Como dice Pessina =E2=80=93citado por F<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">E= RRAJOLI=E2=80=93 nadie delinque por lo que es, sino por= lo que hace. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 482. <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:normal"> 134 Dicho con la paladina c= laridad de FERRAJOLI, =E2=80=9C<= /span>la tarea del derecho es razonablemente la de prevenir y pro= hibir acciones da=C3=B1osas y no la d= e estigmatizar la maldad humana ni la de sacrificar chivos expiatorios por = males que no han realizado, o bien en el sentido de que s=C3=B3lo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt"> las acciones externas, y no las internas, pued= en ser eficazmente prohibidas y prevenidas por la ley=E2=80=9D. F= errajoli; Derecho=E2=80= =A6 p. 481. 135 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 484. 136 ROXIN (1= 997), p. 106. 137 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.= 1. 138 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 139 MIR PUIG, Santiago (2008): Derecho Penal. Parte General. (Barcelona, Editorial Reppertor), = p. 127. 140 MIR = PUIG (2008), p. 128. </sp= an> 141 JAKOBS (1995), p= . 12; y WEFFE (2016), p. 73. 142 WEFFE = (2010), p. 367. 143 Esta forma de propo= rcionalidad es la que, indirectamente, utiliz=C3=B3 la Corte de Constitucio= nalidad en su decisi=C3=B3n de 7 de junio de 2013 para fundamentar la conf= ormidad a la Constituci=C3=B3n de la clausura aplicable a las =C2=ABinfracc= iones espec=C3=ADficas=C2=BB tipificadas en el art=C3=ADculo 85 del C=C3= =B3digo Tributario. Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemal= a de 7 de junio de 2013 (Operadora de QSR de Guatemala, S. A., vs. Rep=C3= =BAblica de Guatemala (Superintendencia de Administraci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;Tributaria)= , Expediente 4531-2012), p. 4. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentenc= ias/822571.4531-2012.pdf. 49 <sp= an style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:47"><img = src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAA= AABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElR= RoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr= +3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH7RB2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFT= kSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />=C2= =ABf=C3=B3rmula del peso=C2=BB=E2=80=93144 </spa= n>a ma= yor da=C3=B1o, mayor pena,145 determinada tanto legislativa (proporcionalidad = = abstracta) como judicialmente (= proporcionalidad concreta). En lo atinente a la proporcionalidad, la Constituci=C3= =B3n limita la posible incidencia del ius puniendi sobre el derecho de propiedad, someti=C3=A9ndolo a l=C3=ADmi= tes estrictos. Seg=C3=BAn la dicci=C3=B3n de la Carta,146 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = confiscaci=C3=B3n= , directa o a trav=C3=A9s de la imposici=C3=B3n de sanciones pecuniarias ex= orbitantes, est=C3=A1 radicalmente prohibida, y concretamente en materia tributaria= , la multa no podr=C3=A1 exceder del valor del impuesto que resulte omitido como co= nsecuencia del obrar il=C3=ADcito del sujeto pasivo tributario. <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> Parad=C3=B3jicamente, la Corte de Constitucionalidad ha limitado el alc= ance de la regla constitucional en comentarios sobre la base= de su interpretaci=C3=B3n literal:147 solo puede demandarse protecci=C3= =B3n de la proporcionalidad con base en ese art=C3=ADculo en el caso de sanciones p= ecuniarias limitativas del derecho de propiedad (esto es, la= multa) y no en el caso de sanciones pecuniarias limitativas de otros derec= hos econ=C3=B3micos del infractor, como por ejemplo la liber= tad econ=C3=B3mica y =E2=80=93curiosamente=E2=80=93 el uso y goce de = = los bienes del infractor, como ocurre = en el caso de la clausura de establecimientos por infracciones <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">tributarias tipificadas en el C=C3=B3digo T= ributario.148 2.3.Non bis in =C3=ADdem <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">El principio </s= pan>no= n bis in =C3=ADdem, corolario de la proporcionalidad en ma= teria sancionadora, consiste en una doble prohibici=C3=B3n. = La primera es de naturaleza sustantiva: al momento de tipificar delitos, in= fracciones y sanciones,149 el legislador est=C3=A1 impedi= do =E2=80=93non=E2=80=93 de castigar un mismo= hecho =E2=80=93bis=E2=80=93 m=C3=A1s de una= vez =E2=80=93 =C3=ADdem<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= , siempre que= el comportamiento sancionatoriamente relevante no lesione m=C3=A1s de un b= ien &#= xa0;jur=C3=ADdicamente tutelado= .150 A contrario, el castigo m=C3=BAltiple de la= conducta =C2=ABpluriofensiva=C2=BB, la que ataca simult=C3=A1neamente varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos, es pe= rfectamente v=C3=A1lida en tanto la sanci=C3=B3n sea una para cada agravio, y pr= oporcional a la entidad de los bienes conjuntamente protegidos y del da=C3= =B1o producido por 144 ALEXY (2= 001): Los derechos=E2=80=A6 p. 16. &#x= a0;145 Vid. ROJAS, Ivonne Yenissey (2015): =E2=80=9CLa = proporcionalidad en las penas=E2=80=9D, Pensamiento Penal= , pp. 88-89, 93. 146 GUATEMAL= A, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 41. </spa= n>147 Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala= de 22 de agosto de 2006 (Marina Octavia Enr=C3=ADquez Oliva, &#x= a0;en el incide= nte de inconstitucionalidad de ley en caso concreto de los p=C3=A1rrafos te= rcero y cuarto del art=C3=ADculo 86 del C=C3=B3digo = Tributario, Expediente= 550-2006), pp. 5-6. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/807710= .550-2006.pdf. 148 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 85 y 86. 149 </sp= an>Esto es, el ius puniendi </sp= an>=C2=ABlegislativo=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica = exclusiva del Estado-legislador para crear </spa= n>las normas que tipifican <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">en forma previa, escrita y estricta los hechos punibles y sus consecuenci= as, noci=C3=B3n que se identifica con la reserva legal</sp= an>, en </= span>nuestro caso pena= l tributaria. Vid. WEFFE (2010), p. 192. 150 </s= pan> El concepto de bien jur=C3=ADdico conforma el aspe= cto axiol=C3=B3gico b=C3=A1sico del Derecho Sancionador. El ordenamiento </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">configura a la sociedad como un =C3=A1mbito de desarr= ollo del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB individual (RAWLS), en condiciones de </= p>libertad y dignidad que = aseguren el libre desarrollo de la personalidad, por una parte, e igual con= sideraci=C3=B3n y respeto (DWORKIN<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">), por la otra. La protecci=C3=B3n de ese =C3=A1mbito social de libertad = y dignidad frente al ataque de terceros, entendida <= /p>= como un motivo sensible (BECCAR=C3=8DA<= /span>) para la acci=C3=B3n punitiva (A</span= >TIENZA y RUIZ MANERO), permite incorporar una referencia </= span>valorativa al fin= del Derecho sancionador: se castiga el hecho que ataca =E2=80=93por ello =C2=ABpunible=C2=BB=E2= =80=93 las expectativas generales de <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">cumplimiento del orden jur= =C3=ADdico (JAKOBS), restableciendo su plena vigencia. E= n la medida en que a este proceso se le reconoce un componente <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">valorativo, se cataloga a esa valoraci=C3=B3n como bien pr= otegido por el Derecho, un =C2=ABbien jur=C3=ADdico=C2=BB. = Vid. RAWLS (199= 5), pp. 370-377; DWORKIN, Ronald (2002): Los Derechos en S= erio (Barcelona, Editorial Ariel), pp. 388- </spa= n>389; BECCARIA, Cesar= e (2003): De los delitos y de las penas, (Bogot= =C3=A1, Editorial Temis), pp. 9-11, ATIENZA y RUIZ <= /p>MANERO (1991), pp. 110 = y ss; JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnther (1998): Sobre la teor=C3=ADa de= la pena, (Bogot=C3=A1, Universidad Externado de = Colombia), p. 2= 7; y WEFFE (2010), pp. 313-318. Ver tambi=C3=A9n Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.1. </span= > 50 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVB= ORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAA= AOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I6CHgFcLplRMAUAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8uEwHlrhXj+qYjrDeq3pOJwDY7TodWOJTvavbdIT1zuk= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAA8BdfVtAE7t2AO+8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"8= 08" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />la acci=C3=B3n as=C3=AD definida (esto= es, proporcional stricto sensu)= .151 Co= mo f=C3=A1cilmente puede constatarse, la conducta pluriofensiva es el objet= o material del llamado concurso ideal de infracciones: la violaci=C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur= =C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ataque a varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93 p= or un mi= smo comportamiento.152 Teniendo siempre presente = la proporcionalidad, los sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos </s= pan>reaccionan de tres grandes modos f= rente a todas las formas de concurrencia de infracciones, incluyendo al concurso id= eal. Una posibilidad, t=C3=ADpica de los sistemas de Common Law<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">, es la de la acumulaci=C3=B3n material: al acto pl= uriofensivo se le aplican conjunta y sucesivamente153 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">todas las penas </= span> </= span>legalmente establecidas para el h= echo. Una segunda posibilidad es la de la absorci= =C3=B3n: al acto pluriofensivo se le aplica =C3=BAnicamente la pena que resulta m=C3=A1s = grave en la valoraci=C3=B3n abstracta que hace el legislador, quedando las dem=C3= =A1s penas aplicables absorbidas por aqu=C3=A9lla. La tercera opci=C3=B3n, = ecl=C3=A9ctica, es la de la lla= mada acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica: al acto pluriofensiv= o se le aplica la pena que resulte m=C3=A1s grave, junto con una fracci=C3=B3n lega= lmente determinada de las restantes sanciones aplicables.154 </spa= n> La segunda prohibici= =C3=B3n, de naturaleza adjetiva, constituye la acepci=C3=B3n m=C3=A1s conoc= ida del t=C3=A9rmino: el titula= r de la potestad sancionatoria,155 sea el juez o la Administraci=C3=B3n,= 156 tiene vedado =E2=80=93non=E2=80=93 perseguir un mismo hecho =E2=80=93bis=E2=80=93 m=C3= =A1s de una vez =E2=80=93=C3=ADdem=E2=80=93, siempre que <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= una vez m=C3= =A1s= =E2=80=93 el comportamiento sancionatoriamente relevante no lesione m=C3=A1s de un bien j= ur=C3=ADdicamente tutelado. En este orden de ideas, la bifurcaci=C3=B3n<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, la persecuci=C3= =B3n m=C3=BAltiple de la conducta =C2=ABpluriofensiva=C2=BB, configura </sp= an> </sp= an>tambi=C3=A9n un caso particular,</s= pan>157 v=C3=A1lido, de concreci=C3=B3n de la garant=C3=ADa de non bis in =C3=ADdem, en la medida en la <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que el procedimie= nto sea como m=C3=A1ximo uno para cada agravio, y el ejer= cicio conjunto del ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB sea arm=C3=B3nico y pr= oporcionado a la entidad de los bienes conjuntamente protegidos y del </spa= n> = 151 Un ejemplo simple de delito pluri= ofensivo es el delito de extorsi=C3=B3n, tipificado en el art=C3=ADculo 261= del C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala. Bajo la caracterizaci=C3=B3n normativ= a, la conducta extorsiva ataca simult=C3=A1neamente tres bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos: la propiedad, la integridad f=C3=ADsica y la libertad. = 0;152 WEFFE (2010), p. 369. = 153 Cuando la distinta naturaleza de las penas impide su = refundici=C3=B3n, el compendiar en una nueva pena otras= penas distintas dando origen a otra =C3=BAnica y distinta. Vid. GARC=C3= =8DA SAN MART=C3=8DN, Jer=C3=B3nimo (2015): La acumulaci= =C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica de penas, (Madrid, Ministerio del Interior= de Espa=C3=B1a =E2=80=93 Secret= ar=C3=ADa General T=C3=A9cnica), pp. 25-26. Disponible en: http://www.institucionpenitenciaria.es/web/export/sites/default/dat= os/descargables/publicaciones/Acumulacion_juri <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">dica_de_penas_1_Accesit_VK_= 2015.pdf. 154 WEFFE (2010), p. 66. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">155 Esto es, una medida del poder general = del Estado =E2=80=93competencia= =E2=80=93 para perseguir y castigar las lesiones a bien= es jur=C3=ADdicos producidas a trav=C3=A9s de las acciones que el ordenami= ento tipifica como il=C3=ADcitas. En su acepci=C3=B3n =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB,= el ius puniendi encarna la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica exclusiva = del Estado-juez para la determinaci=C3=B3n de la existencia de un= hecho punible con sus modos y circunstancias de comisi=C3=B3n, identific= aci=C3=B3n de los responsables =E2=80=93</= span>autores y part=C3=ADcipes, seg=C3=BAn el caso=E2=80=93 </= span>e individualizaci=C3=B3n de la pena a la que, en raz=C3=B3n de su = participaci=C3=B3n en el hecho, los responsables se han hecho acreedores</s= pan>. WEFFE (2010), p. 206. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">156 Al contrario de lo que la separaci=C3=B3n de= funciones estatales por obra de la juridificaci=C3=B3n del Estado, product= o de la Revoluci=C3=B3n Francesa, pudiera sugerir, en la pr=C3=A1ctica el = ejercicio del ius puniendi <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">=C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB no puede ser monopolio de los </span= >tribunales. La eficie= ncia en la tutela del inter=C3=A9s p=C3=BAblico comprometido en ciertas for= mas de actividad administrativa, particularmente la tributaria, determin= =C3=B3 la necesaria asunci=C3=B3n, por la Administraci=C3=B3n, del <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt">ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB= para las llamadas infracciones =C2=ABadministrativas=C2=BB: en el Derecho= Administrativo, a esa competencia se la llama potestad sa= ncionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n, que hoy d=C3= =ADa se acepta con pr=C3=A1ctica unanimidad, si bien con variaciones en su = fundamento. En el Derecho guatemalteco, el art=C3=ADculo 98.4 del C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario consagra la potestad sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n.= Vid. GARC=C3=8DA DE ENTERR=C3=8DA, Eduardo y FERN=C3=81NDEZ, Tom=C3=A1s R= am=C3=B3n (2017): Curso de Derecho = Administrativo II, (Madrid, Thomson <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Reuters), T=C3=ADtulo V, cap= . XVIII; PE=C3=91A SOL=C3=8DS, Jos=C3=A9 (2005): = La potestad sancionatoria de la administraci=C3=B3n p=C3=BAblica = venezolana, (Caracas, Colecci=C3=B3n de Estudios Jur=C3=ADdico= s No. 10. TSJ), pp. 50-51; y WEFFE (2018), p. XXXVIII. = 157 Caso especial y no excepci=C3=B3n, puesto que la prohibici= =C3=B3n en comentario es igualmente aplicable al hecho pluriofensivo, </spa= n> en l= a forma que se explica en el texto principal. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">51 </s= pan> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAn= AAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJR= EFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElRRoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr+3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH7RB= 2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D= "position:absolute" />da=C3=B1o producido por la acci=C3=B3n pluriofensiva.</span= >158 Evidentem= ente, la bifurcaci=C3=B3n de procedimientos sancionadores lleva impl=C3=ADc= ito el riesgo de decisiones contradictorias sobre los mismos hechos, por una parte,= y de solapamiento entre los distintos =C3=B3rdenes = sanciona= dores en violaci=C3=B3n del non bis in =C3=ADdem, por la = otra. Ello exige una debida coordinaci=C3=B3n entre las &= #xa0;dos esferas, penal y adm= inistrativa, en el ejercicio del ius puniendi.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">15= 9 Dos son las principales medidas <= /span>que sirven a ese objetivo. La pr= imera es la prejudicialidad, que ordena los procedimientos en funci=C3=B3n = = de la prevalencia para el estab= lecimiento de los hechos de un =C3=A1mbito =E2=80=93normalmente, el penal=E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">16= 0 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">respecto del o= tro, impidiendo a este un pronunciamiento antes de la decisi=C3=B3n de aqu= =C3=A9l, o incluso pronunciarse del todo.161 Correlativamente, la segunda pauta es la de l= a comunicabilidad limitada de las pruebas, que se resume en la imposibilidad de utilizaci=C3=B3n de pruebas de = un =C3=A1mbito en el otro por la indebida limitaci=C3=B3n de derechos </spa= n> </spa= n>fundamentales= que devendr=C3=ADa de su traslaci=C3=B3n, aun a pesar de haber sido obteni= das legalmente en el procedimiento de origen. Ese es el caso= de la intervenci=C3=B3n de comunicaciones postales, telef=C3=B3nicas o </s= pan> electr=C3= =B3nicas, viable en el proceso penal cuando no hay otra forma razonable de = conocer si un delito gra= ve se ha cometido (como por ejemplo, terrorismo o delincue= ncia organizada), o si existe un riesgo = inminente de da= =C3=B1o, no evitable por medios menos intrusivos, a trav=C3=A9s de un fuert= e control judicial que permite su compatibilidad con el Esta= do de Derecho162 y que, por lo mismo, hace a la prueba inviable <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>en el marco del procedimiento administr= ativo sancionador.163 Otro caso, a la inversa, es el de la <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">obtenci=C3=B3n admini= strativa de evidencia sobre la base del deber general de colaboraci=C3=B3n,= que obliga a los ciudadanos a suministrar todo tipo de informaci=C3=B3n relevante = a la Administraci=C3=B3n bajo amenaza de sanci=C3=B3n, aunque esos datos puedan con= stituir la base para demostrar la comisi=C3=B3n de infracciones por = <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">quien los suministra,164 cuesti=C3=B3n qu= e =E2= =80=93= por violatoria de la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia=E2=80=93 es inadmisible en <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >el proceso penal.= 165 158 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">159 MORCILLO MORENO, Juana (2007): </spa= n>Teor=C3=ADa y pr=C3=A1ctica de las cuestiones prejudiciales en = el =C3=A1mbito administrativo, (Madrid, La </span= >Ley), p. 435. = 160 MORCILLO MORENO (2007), p. 435. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 161 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">P=C3=89REZ-PLAYA MORENO, Cri= stina (2007): La tramitaci=C3=B3n separada del procedimien= to sancionador tributario, (Granada, <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Universidad de Granada), p.= 49. Disponible en: https://hera.ugr.es/tesisugr/1657168x.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;162 WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2017); =E2=80=9C<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= The right to be informed: The Parallel between Criminal Law and Tax Law, wi= th Special Emphasis on Cross-Border Situations=E2=80=9D<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >, World Tax Journal, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Amsterdam, = IBFD), p. 462. Disponible en: https://online.ibfd.org/kbase/#topic=3Ddoc&a= mp;url=3D/document/wtj_2017_03_int_4. 163 </sp= an> HUERGO LORA, Alejandro (2016): La ut= ilizaci=C3=B3n de la prueba penal en los procedimientos administrativos san= cionadores. Disponible en: https://almacendederecho.org/la-u= tilizacion-la-prueba-penal-los-procedimientos-administrativos- <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;sancionador= es/ 164 HUERGO LORA (2016). <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;165 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">En nuestra opini=C3=B3n, la = presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia es una garant=C3=ADa fundamental derivada del = principio de culpabilidad, esencial a todas <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">l= as formas de ejercicio del ius puniendi, inclus= ive en sede administrativa. Ello hace constitucionalmente <= /span>inadmisible la i= nvocaci=C3=B3n del deber de colaboraci=C3=B3n como base de la actividad pro= batoria de cargo de la Administraci=C3=B3n, en supuestos que obligan al ap= ortante a la autoinculpaci=C3=B3n, en raz=C3=B3n de la prohibici=C3=B3n </s= pan>nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare. Esto no es pac=C3=ADficamente aceptado, sin emb= argo, con base en la atribuci=C3=B3n a la potestad sancionadora de la Admin= istraci=C3=B3n de una naturaleza distinta a la penal, =C3=A1mbito al que= resultar=C3=ADan aplicables estos principios. Vid. MEDINA CALVO, Lorna (20= 02): =E2=80=9CEl derecho a no autoinculparse y a no declarar contra s=C3=AD mismo: An=C3=A1li= sis de la Jurisprudencia del Tribunal Europeo de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">De= rechos Humanos y la Jurisprudencia Norteamericana=E2=80=9D, Revista de Derecho Tributario No. 95 (Caracas, AVDT), pp. 13-16= ; = WEFFE (2010), pp. 489-492; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 178-180. = 52 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAA= AANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQB= D6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElRRoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr+3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAH7RB2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />El sistema sancionador tributario guatemaltec= o recoge normativamente estas garant=C3=ADas. En su vertiente <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">sustantiva, el non bis in =C3=ADdem = es reconocido como regla espec=C3=ADfica de la proporcionalidad s= ancionadora por el C=C3=B3digo Tributario, que proh=C3=ADbe a la Administraci=C3=B3= n Tributaria el ejercicio de su potestad sancionadora m=C3=A1s de una vez.166 Al tiempo, tanto el C=C3=B3dig= o Procesal Penal como el C=C3=B3digo Tributario hacen lo propio desde el punto de vista adjetivo, cuando p= or un lado se veda la m=C3=BAltiple persecuci=C3=B3n penal por el mismo hecho,167 y por el otro se inhi= be el ejercicio de la potestad sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para los casos en los que= de la investigaci=C3=B3n hecha por la autoridad fiscal se deduzca que el hecho perseguido puede tener car= =C3=A1cter penal.168 2.4.Culpabilidad.16= 9 La culpabilidad es reprochabilidad: la cualidad de la conducta </s= pan>in= justa = =E2=80=93esto es, t=C3=ADpica y antijur=C3=ADdica<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </spa= n>de ser </sp= an> </sp= an>imputada a una persona como a su au= tor consciente y libre,170 que de esa forma ha le= sionado o ha puesto en peligro concreto al bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de la p= rotecci=C3=B3n sancionadora.171 La conducta culpable es, entonces, aquella que contraviene al ordenamie= nto en una doble v=C3=ADa: primero, la regla que consagra al bien jur=C3=ADdico como susceptible de protec= ci=C3=B3n sancionadora, y segundo, la libertad y la dignidad de la v=C3=ADctima, en= condiciones en las que el autor, aun teniendo la posibilidad de actuar de = otro modo,172 ha decidido actuar d= eliberadamente para obtener el resultado da=C3=B1oso, o bien ha omitido el = cuidado = que su posici=C3=B3n frente al bien jur=C3=ADdico le exig=C3=ADa para resgu= ardarlo.173 As=C3=AD entendida, la culpabilidad es elemento= insustituible, tanto de justificaci=C3=B3n como de l=C3=ADmite, de todas <= /span> las forma= s en las que puede ejercerse v=C3=A1lidamente el ius puniendi <span= class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">en Derecho, y muy especialmente en = el Derecho Tributario Sancionador.</span= >174 Sin la culpabilidad, el Derecho Sancionador pierde buena parte <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = de su justificaci= =C3=B3n axiol=C3=B3gica: es, como se=C3=B1ala calificada doctrina, un eleme= nto insustituible del sentimiento com=C3=BAn de justicia, al punto de que cualquier= forma de responsabilidad objetiva o sin culpa 166 GUAT= EMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 90. Ver sentencia de la Corte = de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 3 de marzo de 2015, (Operadora de QS= R de Guatemala, S. A., vs. Rep=C3=BAblica de Guatemala (Superintendencia de= Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria), Expediente 4531-2012), p. 4. Disponible = en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/822571.4531-2012.pdf. = 167 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADcul= o 17. 168 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, art=C3=ADculos 70 y 90. De acuerdo con la Corte de Constitucionalidad= , la interacci=C3=B3n de estas dos disposiciones evita la doble persecuci= =C3=B3n y castigo por el mismo hecho, ofreciendo =E2=80=93a su juicio=E2=80=93 garant= =C3=ADa id=C3=B3nea de estos derechos del ciudadano. Sentencia de la Corte= de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 10 de enero de 2012, (Jos=C3=A9 </sp= an> Rob= erto Hern=C3=A1ndez Guzm=C3=A1n, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad en = caso concreto contra el art=C3=ADculo 86 del C=C3=B3digo </= span>Tributario </span= > de Guatemala, </= span>Expediente </span= > 2832-2013), </span= >pp. <= /span>7-8. Disponible <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">en: = http://143.208.58.124/= Sentencias/830271.2832-2013.pdf 169 El = desarrollo de esta secci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 fuertemente basado en nuestras pr= evias reflexiones sobre el tema. Vid. WEFFE (2018). = 170 Vid. FRANK, Reinhardt (2000): Sobre la es= tructura del concepto de culpabilidad, (Buenos Aires, Editorial B= de F.), pp. 39-40. 171 De acuerdo con = el principio de lesividad. Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.1. <= /p>172 Esto es, que la conducta conforme a Derecho le ha sido </sp= an>asequible, en palabras de ROXIN, o que el autor podia actuar de </= span>otro modo, en pal= abras de Goldschmidt. Vid. ROXIN, Claus (1981): Culpabilid= ad y prevenci=C3=B3n en Derecho Penal, (Madrid, <= /span>Editorial Reus),= pp. 41-48; ROXIN (1997), pp. 799-800, 807-812; GOLDSCHMIDT, James (2002): = La concepci=C3=B3n normativa </span= >de la culpabil= idad, (Buenos Aires, Editorial B de F.), pp. 87-90; SCH= UNEMANN, Bernd (2000): =E2=80=9CLa culpabilidad. Estado <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > de la cu= esti=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en: Sobre el Estado de la Teor=C3=AD= a del Delito, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 103; y WEFFE (2018)= , p. 160. 173 Esto es,= la conciencia de la ilicitud de la conducta. Dentro de la teor=C3=ADa gene= ral del delito, como formas subjetivas de realizaci=C3=B3n de la conducta,= el dolo y la culpa est=C3=A1n comprendidas dentro del requisito de = tipicidad. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), p= . 25. 174 WEFFE (2018), p. 246. = 53 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBO= Rw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAA= OxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cY= AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positio= n:absolute" />se entiende, sin m=C3=A1s, como b=C3=A1rbara e injusta.<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">175= El ca= stigo solo se justifica =E2=80=93en Derecho=E2=80=93 como consecuencia del ejercicio irracional de la libertad por parte del autor= , que supone da=C3=B1o, o de alguna forma coacci=C3=B3n o restricci=C3=B3n a la lib= ertad y a la dignidad ajenas.176 Dicho de otro modo, la sanci=C3=B3n </s= pan>=E2=80=93= = ;como po= sibilidad unilateral de alteraci=C3=B3n del status jur=C3= =ADdico del infractor=E2=80=93 es =C3=BAnicamente v=C3=A1lida cuando esta toma en cuenta la libertad y la dignidad del= autor.177 En efecto, todo ser humano =E2=80=93incluyendo al infractor=E2=80=93 tiene derecho a que se c= onsidere su condici=C3=B3n de persona dotada de dignidad, en funci=C3=B3n de su capacida= d de elegir y de dirigir, en consecuencia, su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB</sp= an>178 hacia el cumplimiento del Derecho. As=C3=AD, sola= mente en el caso que el individuo exceda la esfera de libert= ad propia, vulnerando la libertad y dignidad de un tercero, el enunciado </= span> jur=C3=ADd= ico =C2=ABil=C3=ADcito-sanci=C3=B3n=C2=BB hallar=C3=A1 justificaci=C3=B3n d= e=C3=B3ntica, y ser=C3=A1 exigible v=C3=A1lidamente.179 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Bajo estas </spa= n> </spa= n>premisas, la culpabilidad es un pres= upuesto necesario de la sanci=C3=B3n,180 lo que permite predicar del </s= pan> </s= pan>principio una doble funci=C3=B3n. = En primer lugar, la culpabilidad justifica <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">a la sanci=C3=B3n, en tanto sirve como </sp= an>mecanismo de protecci=C3=B3n de la = v=C3=ADctima. Segundo, la culpabilidad limita a la sanci=C3=B3n, pues ella pie= rde &#= xa0;justificaci=C3=B3n racional= axiol=C3=B3gica en su ausencia, como mecanismo de protecci=C3=B3n del vict= imario.181 As=C3=AD, al igual que ocurre con la reserva legal, la culpabilidad s= irve a la protecci=C3=B3n del ciudadano con </spa= n>y <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">del </sp= an>&#x= a0;Derec= ho Sancionador.182 Ning=C3=BAn hecho o comportami= ento humano puede ser susceptible de sanci=C3=B3n </= span>si no es f= ruto de una decisi=C3=B3n: si no es intencional, la conducta no puede ser s= iquiera prohibida, mucho menos castigada, y para ser tal debe haber sido realizada = por consciencia y voluntad por una persona capaz de entender y de querer.183 </s= pan>En estos t= =C3=A9rminos, el principio de culpabilidad adopta la forma de tres condicio= nes subjetivas de responsabilidad, necesarias para un modelo= sancionador garantista.184 La primera de ellas es la personalidad de la acci=C3=B3n, que designa la su= sceptibilidad de imputaci=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito a su autor; esto es, la <= /span> <= /span>relaci=C3=B3n de causalidad que = vincula la acci=C3=B3n final del autor185 con el resultado punible.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">1= 86 La = segunda es la imputabilidad, la capacidad de entender y de querer o, lo que es lo m= ismo, la medida de la aptitud para ser sujeto del Derecho Sancionador.187 = En ter= cer lugar, la culpabilidad stricto sensu, que designa la conciencia y voluntad en el il= =C3=ADcito individual y concreto, la posibilidad racional de conciencia del= 175 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 489. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">176 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52; y ANDRAD= E RODR=C3=8DGUEZ (2018), p. 42. 177 WEF= FE (2018), p. 164. 178 FINNIS, John (20= 11): Natural Law and Natural Rights= , (Oxford, Oxford University Press), p. 100; RAWLS (1995), pp. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">3= 70-377; y WEFFE (2018), p. 145 179 WEFF= E (2018), p. 168. 180 JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnt= her (1996); Fundamentos del Derecho Penal, (Buen= os Aires, Ad-Hoc), p. 16. 181 JESCHECK= , Hans Heinrich (2003): =E2=80=9CEvoluci=C3=B3n del concepto jur=C3=ADdico<= /span>-penal de culpabilidad en Alemania y Austria=E2=80=9D, <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">Revista Electr=C3=B3nica </s= pan>de Ciencia Penal yCriminolog=C3=ADa, No. </p= >05-01, <= /span>p. 01:1. Disponible </spa= n>en: = http://criminet= .ugr.es/recpc/05/recpc05-01.pdf; y Weffe; Culpabilidad</sp= an>=E2=80=A6 pp. 166-170. 182 </sp= an>Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. 183 FERRAJO= LI (2001), p. 487. 184 FERRAJOLI (2001)= , p. 490; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 171-172. 185 </sp= an>Vid. WELZEL, Hans (1956): Derecho Penal, parte gener= al, (Buenos Aires, Depalma), pp. 35-36. </= p>186 En este sentido se pronunci=C3=B3 la Corte de Constitucional= idad, al analizar en amparo la procedencia constitucional de la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;imputaci= =C3=B3n en l=C3=ADnea objetiva de responsabilidad sancionadora en un supues= to de responsabilidad tributaria por representaci=C3=B3n (directores, gere= ntes y administradores). Ver sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de= Guatemala de 25 de octubre de 2017, (Silvia Patricia Dorigoni V=C3=A9liz = vs. Rep=C3=BAblica (Superintendencia de Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria), </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">E= xpediente 1770-2016), p. 8. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias= /837234.1770-2016.pdf 187 WEFFE (2018= ), pp. 304-305; y GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), p. 26. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 54 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntX= z+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808= " alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />car=C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico del hech= o. &#x= a0;As=C3=AD, el principio de cu= lpabilidad sirve como criterio de correcci=C3=B3n de la adecuada atribuibil= idad de la sanci=C3=B3n al auto= r del acto antijur=C3=ADdico. Seg=C3=BAn su enunciado m=C3=A1s general, es = necesario estimar = valorativamente la orientaci=C3=B3n volitiva del actor frente al = bien jur=C3=ADdico protegido, de acuerdo con las </s= pan>circunstancias en las que se verif= ic=C3=B3 el acto antijur=C3=ADdico, para fundamentar as=C3=AD axiol=C3=B3gi= camente la vinculaci=C3=B3n ent= re dicho acto y su autor, a t=C3=ADtulo de responsable, acreedor a la sanci= =C3=B3n.188 En este </span= >sentido, la culpabilidad significa es= pecialmente personalidad, seg=C3=BAn el cual el binomio c= orrelativo =C2=ABacto antijur= =C3=ADdico-sanci=C3=B3n=C2=BB solo puede establecerse respecto del <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">autor <= /span>del acto tipificado como il=C3=ADcito. De tal modo, la sanci=C3=B3n= es necesariamente consecuencia de la relaci=C3=B3n entre el acto antijur= =C3=ADdico y su autor culpable: =C3=BAnicamente la persona que dirige consciente y = libremente su conducta a la realizaci=C3=B3n del </s= pan>acto il=C3= =ADcito es la que puede, l=C3=B3gicamente, ser objeto del reproche = que es esenci= al al concepto de = culpabilidad.189 De igual modo, la libertad y la dignidad que tiene toda= persona humana por el solo hecho de serlo permite presuponer, presumir, que frente a la posibilidad f=C3=A1cti= ca de da=C3=B1ar o amenazar concretamente un bien jur=C3=ADdico la persona actuar= =C3=A1 conforme con un =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB y, en consecuencia= , no lo da=C3=B1ar=C3=A1 ni lo amenazar=C3=A1: en otras pala= bras, que ser=C3=A1 inocente. De esta simple deducci=C3= =B3n dimana la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia,190 = una regla de distribuci=C3=B3n de la carga de la prueba qu= e, estructuralmente, supone un proceso deductivo mediante el cual se infiere un hec= ho desconocido =E2=80=93la inocencia del imputado=E2=80=93 a trav=C3=A9s de un hecho conocido que normalmente acompa=C3=B1a al act= uar humano: el car=C3=A1cter de persona del acusado y, por consiguiente, su dignid= ad y su capacidad de elegir conforme con las previsiones del ordenamiento. La presu= nci=C3=B3n de inocencia configura, entonces, una expresi=C3=B3n del princip= io de = culpabilidad en su aspec= to adjetivo, en la medida en la que permite que el acto il=C3=ADcito se </s= pan>reproche, se <= /span>impute a= l autor, solo a trav=C3=A9s de la constataci=C3=B3n plena de que =C3=A9ste = ha dirigido su voluntad consciente y libre a la realizaci=C3=B3n del acto antijur= =C3=ADdico, habiendo tenido la posibilidad de actuar de otro modo, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>conforme con el =C3=A1mbito de libertad= y dignidad de la v=C3=ADctima.191 En este sentido, la Cort= e de Constitucionalidad ha declarado que la iniciaci=C3=B3n del procedimien= to judicial para la imposici=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n al co= ntribuyente imputado por la hipot=C3=A9tica comisi=C3=B3n de infracciones tributari= as192 inaudita partem, sin que este sea notificado del procedimiento an= tes de la remisi=C3=B3n al juez de paz competente, ni tampoco se le permita oponer = excepciones ni defensas que permitan el descargo, <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-sp= acing:normal">en sede administrativa,193 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">contra los ele= mentos de convicci=C3=B3n de la supuesta comisi=C3=B3n de la infracci=C3=B3n tributaria formal castigada c= on clausura, se constituye en una forma de presunci=C3=B3n de culpabilidad, contraria al principio en com= entarios.194 Esta comprensi=C3=B3n de la culpabilidad, como reprochabilidad </spa= n>del acto an= tijur=C3=ADdico atribuible personalmente <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-sp= acing:normal"> a su autor = consciente y libre es esencial a toda forma del Derecho Sancionador, inclus= ive cuando este <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">188 WEFFE (2018), pp. 173, 180. = 189 WEFFE (2018), p. 192. </= span>190 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=AD= culo 14. 191 WEFFE (2018), pp. 178-17= 9. 192 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributari= o, art=C3=ADculo 85. 193 Siguiendo el p= rocedimiento legalmente establecido en el art=C3=ADculo 146 del C=C3=B3digo= Tributario. 194 Sentencia de la Corte = de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 22 de agosto de 2006, (Marina Octavia= Enr=C3=ADquez Oliva, en el incidente de inconstitucionalidad de ley en = caso concreto de los p=C3=A1rrafos tercero y cuarto del art=C3=ADculo 86 de= l C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Expediente 550-2006), pp. 5-6. Disponible en: ht= tp://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/807710.550-2006.pdf. = = 55 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= AB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACY= ck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>se dirig= e a la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos objeto de regulaci=C3=B3n p= or el Derecho Tributario. La cu= lpabilidad constituye un concepto jur=C3=ADdico fun= damental, que integra necesariamente todo enunciado jur=C3=ADdico que tenga como consecuencia jur=C3=ADdica una = sanci=C3=B3n por el incumplimiento de una obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, sea material o formal, para justific= ar axiol=C3=B3gicamente la relaci=C3=B3n entre acto antijur=C3=ADdico </spa= n> </spa= n>tributario, autor y sanci=C3=B3n.</s= pan>195 3= . El sistema sancionador tributario guatemalteco.= Algunos comentarios sobre sus problemas aplicativ= os, y su influencia en el ISLR. La regulaci=C3=B3n material del Derecho Tribut= ario Sancionador en Guatemala est=C3=A1 bifurcada. Sobre la base de la distinci=C3=B3n = ontol=C3=B3gica entre delitos y contravenciones,196 la legislaci=C3=B3n guatemalteca regula los </spa= n>primeros =E2=80=93que conforman el Derecho Penal= Tributario stricto sensu=E2=80=93 en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, y los segundos <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = =E2=80=93que forman el Derecho Tributario Sanc= ionador en sentido estricto=E2=80=93197 <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">en el C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Como </= p>es natural, ambos= tipos de il=C3=ADcitos procuran la protecci=C3=B3n de la funci=C3=B3n de d= eterminaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria </spa= n>=E2=80=93il=C3=ADcitos formales=E2=80=93 y del orden econ=C3=B3mico =E2=80=93<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">il=C3=ADcitos ma= teriales=E2=80=93 que est=C3=A1n <= /p>comprometidos en= el cumplimiento y la eficiente recaudaci=C3=B3n del ISLR en Guatemala. Seg= uidamente, debemos pasar a su an=C3=A1lisis, limit=C3=A1ndonos =E2=80=93por obra de la definici=C3=B3n del tema bajo estudio y de las <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> demandas editoriale= s=E2= =80=93 al estudio de la estructura y principales problemas= aplicativos derivados de aquellas regulaciones que, tanto e= n un =C3=A1mbito como en el otro, inciden en el efectivo cumplimiento </spa= n> = del ISLR en e= l pa=C3=ADs. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spacin= g:normal">3.1. El r=C3=A9gimen infraccional tributario. Parte General. </sp= an> El T=C3=ADtulo III del C=C3=B3digo Tributario, intitulado = =C2=ABinfracciones y sanciones=C2=BB,198 comprende dos cap=C3=ADtulos. <= /span> <= /span>En el primero de ellos, se regul= an las instituciones comunes fundamentales del Derecho Sancionador <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Tributario, que = junto con las disposiciones constitucionales previamente comentadas, ofrece= n cauce formal y material al ejercicio de la potestad sancio= nadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria. = 3.1.1. Validez material y tem= poral de la ley sancionadora tributaria. </span= >El primer obje= to del C=C3=B3digo Tributario es la del establecimiento del =C3=A1mbito mat= erial y temporal de regulaci=C3=B3n del Derecho Tributario Sancionador. Respecto de= l primer punto, como se ha dicho,199 el <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= 0.15pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">C=C3=B3digo tipif= ica las infracciones tributarias y regula al ius puniendi ejercible por la Administraci=C3=B3n 195 = WEFFE (2018), pp. 246-248. 196 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">WEFFE (2018), pp. 209-218. 197 WEFFE = (2010), pp. 159-160. 198 Probablemente = influido por el Modelo de C=C3=B3digo Tributario para Am=C3=A9rica Latina, = preparado por la Organizaci=C3=B3n de Estados Americanos y por el Banco = Interamericano de Desarrollo en las postrimer=C3=ADas de la d=C3=A9cada de = 1960, y que ha servido de base para la redacci=C3=B3n de varios de los C= =C3=B3digos Tributarios nacionales de varios pa=C3=ADses de la regi=C3=B3n.= GIULIANI FONROUGE, Carlos; GOMES DE SOUSA, Rubens y VALD=C3=89S COSTA, Ra= m=C3=B3n (1968): Modelo de C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario (Washington, D.C., Preparado = para el Programa Conjunto de Tributaci=C3=B3n OEA/BID. Uni=C3=B3n Panameric= ana, Secretar=C3=ADa General de la Organizaci=C3=B3n de los Estados Americ= anos). 199 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 3.1. </span= > 56 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVB= ORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAA= AOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAs= IAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positi= on:absolute" />Tributaria en todas sus vertientes,200 sin perjuicio de la regu= laci=C3=B3n material que, particularmente en lo atinente a la tipificaci=C3=B3n de conductas constitutivas= de infracci=C3=B3n, hagan las leyes tributarias especiales.201 As=C3=AD, la reserva legal sancionadora= tributaria en Guatemala es abierta: cualquier ley puede = = tipificar infracciones tributar= ias siempre que esta sea emitida por el Congreso, en tanto esta materia es = = objeto d= e la reserva parlamentaria.202 Respecto de lo segundo, el = C=C3=B3digo Tributario refrenda la regla general de validez temporal de la = ley sancionadora tributaria, tempus regit actum<span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">: la ley que sirve a la determinaci=C3=B3n de la punibilidad de un </s= pan> hecho y de la sanci=C3=B3n que le es aplicable es la ley vigent= e al momento de la comisi=C3=B3n del hecho.203 S= olo excepcionalmente, la regla admite relajaci=C3=B3n a favo= r de la ley que aminore o excluya la punibilidad del = ;hecho o= la responsabilidad del infractor; esto es, la regla de retroactividad, que= =E2= =80=93como se ha dicho=E2=80=93 = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">est=C3=A1 debid= amente consagrada en Guatemala, tanto constitucional como legislativamente.= 204 Sin= embargo, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario condiciona la operatividad pr=C3=A1ctic= a de la retroactividad pro reo a la ausencia de cosa juzgada formal. Respetuosamente, consideram= os que la limitaci=C3=B3n legislativa es = inconstitucional por dos razones. En pri= mer lugar, desde el punto de vista de la teleolog=C3=ADa constitucional, la regla contradice el car=C3=A1c= ter fragmentario y necesario205 de la potestad sa= ncionadora estatal con base en el privilegio al principio de= seguridad jur=C3=ADdica, la certeza que dimana de la res iudicata = = por sobr= e la dignidad del infractor, que demanda un Derecho Sancionador <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">m=C3=ADnim= o206 y, en consecuencia, excluye la posibilidad de establ= ecer excepciones a la regla de retroactividad pro r= eo. En segundo lugar, desde el punto de vista de la ex=C3=A9gesis = normativa, la norma constitucional que consagra la retroactividad pro reo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">no admite exce= pci=C3=B3n alguna, es absoluta, de modo que la limitaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3d= igo &#= xa0;Tributario en comentario es= nula, por imperio del principio de supremac=C3=ADa constitucional<= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">, conforme al cual =E2=80=93seg=C3=BAn la ha definido la = Corte de Constitucionalidad=E2=80=93 la Constituci=C3=B3n es ley suprema que impera sob= re &#x= a0;cualq= uier otro producto normativo en el ordenamiento, y representa la nulidad de= cualquier regla que viole o tergiverse los principios o reg= las constitucionales.207 3.1.2. Definici=C3=B3n, clasificaci=C3=B3n de las = infracciones tributarias. La secci=C3=B3n segunda del T=C3=ADtulo III del C= =C3=B3digo define a los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios en forma ampl=C3=ADsima: =C3=A9stos = ser=C3=A1n toda conducta </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>tanto act= iva como omisiva=E2=80=93 que implique violaci=C3=B3n de normas tributarias, sean </spa= n> </spa= n>200 Al ius punendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3= =ADdica exclusiva del Estado-juez para la determ= inaci=C3=B3n de la existencia de un hecho punible con sus modos y circunst= ancias de comisi=C3=B3n, identificaci=C3=B3n de los responsables <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt">=E2=80=93autores y part=C3=ADcipes, seg=C3= =BAn el caso=E2=80=93 e individ= ualizaci=C3=B3n de la pena a la que, en raz=C3=B3n de su participaci=C3=B3n= en el hecho, los responsables se han hecho acreedo= res, se suma el ius puniendi </span= >=C2=ABejecutivo=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica del Estado-administra= ci=C3=B3n de hacer ejecutar la sanci=C3=B3n finalmente impuesta. Respecto = de las infracciones tributarias, esta medida del ius puniendi es atribuida = a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria por imperio del art=C3=ADculo 98.4 del= C=C3=B3digo Tributario. WEFFE (2010), p. 206. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">20= 1 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 67. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 202 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. y WEFFE (2007), p. 122= . = 203 WEFFE (2016), p. 88. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;204 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.1. </= p>205 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. 206 </sp= an>FERRAJOLI (2001), pp. 102-103. 207 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculos 44 y 175. Ver = tambi=C3=A9n sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de = ;Guatemala de 2= 2 de agosto de 2006, (H=C3=A9ctor Horacio Zachrisson Descamps, en acci=C3= =B3n de inconstitucionalidad contra el inciso b) del art=C3=ADculo 24 de= las Disposiciones Transitorias y Finales de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=AD= tica de la Rep=C3=BAblica, Expediente 472-94), p. 2. Disponible en: http= ://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/791796.472-94.pdf. = 57= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B9RJREFUeJztzkERgDAQALFFA06wg0MEoK8e+Nx0SBSkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAD47pwCau6qnO6Qjbe6t7OgEAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwJwsc1gICGueJugAAAABJRU5ErkJg= gg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />sus= tanciales o formales, que =E2=80=93a=C3=B1adimos nosotros=E2=80=93 sea casti= gado con una sanci=C3=B3n.208 Adicionalmente, el C=C3=B3digo bifurca el ejercici= o del ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB209 con base en= la distinci=C3=B3n entre delitos y contravenciones210, atribuyendo a la juris= dicci=C3=B3n penal =E2=80=93por una parte=E2=80=93 la persecuci=C3=B3n y </= span> </= span>castigo de los delitos <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">contra el= r=C3=A9gimen tributario, tipificados en el Cap=C3=ADtulo IV del T=C3=ADtulo X de= l C=C3=B3digo <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Penal,<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">21= 1 a sa= ber: (i) la defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria;212 (ii) la apropiaci=C3=B3n in= debida de tributos;213 y (iii) la resistencia a la acci= =C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria.214 </s= pan>Adem=C3= =A1s de estos delitos, que bien pudieran calificarse como delitos tributarios </spa= n>prop= ios en tanto la mayor=C3=ADa de las conductas t=C3=ADpicas= que procuran menoscabar el orden econ=C3=B3mico afectando e= l derecho del Estado a la percepci=C3=B3n del </span= >tributo,215 el r=C3=A9gimen tributario puede verse tambi=C3=A9n afectado por: (i) part= iculares, a trav=C3=A9s del tipo de falsificaci=C3=B3n de se= llos, papel sellado y timbres que, emitidos o controlados por la autoridad,= tengan por objeto el cobro de impuestos;216 y (ii) funci= onarios p=C3=BAblicos, a trav=C3=A9s de los delitos de exacciones <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ilegales<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 217 y = de cobro indebido.218 En este sentido, para salvaguardar la prohibici=C3= =B3n de doble <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">persecuci=C3=B3n = =E2=80= =93non bis in =C3=ADdem=E2=80=93219 el C=C3=B3digo or= dena a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria la declinatoria = de su co= mpetencia sancionadora220 cuando, al sustanciar e= l procedimiento de determinaci=C3=B3n tributaria, </= span>constate la posible existencia de= alguno de los delitos tributarios previamente enumerados. El <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">procedimiento tributa= rio seguir=C3=A1 su curso, a los efectos de la determinaci=C3=B3n de la obl= igaci=C3=B3n tributaria potencialmente insoluta, y en lo sancionador la Administrac= i=C3=B3n Tributaria pasar=C3=A1 a realizar en el proceso penal las funciones de =C3= =B3rgano auxiliar de polic=C3=ADa criminal.221 En este =C3=BAltimo sent= ido, el Juez <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Contralor de la investigaci=C3=B3n penal deber=C3=A1 permitir a los ab= ogados designados por la Administraci=C3=B3n = Tributaria el i= mponerse de las actuaciones judiciales, y coadyuvar con el Ministerio P=C3= =BAblico en la persecuci=C3=B3n penal, como aut=C3=A9nticos auxiliares fiscales.<= /span>222 208 WEFFE (2016), p. 72. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">209 Ver nota al pie= 155. 210 Ver Se= cci=C3=B3n 3. 211 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 70. 212 GUA= TEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CA=E2=80=9D y =E2=80= =9CB=E2=80=9D. 213 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CC=E2=80=9D. </p= >214 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD= =E2=80=9D. 215 Sea por= el incumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n (casos de la defraudaci=C3=B3n y l= a apropiaci=C3=B3n indebida de tributos) o por el </= p>entorpecimiento delictua= l de la funci=C3=B3n de determinaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tribut= aria (caso de la resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">fiscalizadora). <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;216 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 328= . = 217 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculo 451. 218 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3d= igo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 452. 219 Ver S= ecci=C3=B3n 2.3. 220 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">I= mpropiamente, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario califica como denuncia lo que realmente configura <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">declinatoria de la competencia sancionadora <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria y remisi=C3=B3n del expediente sancio= nador a la jurisdicci=C3=B3n penal. La denuncia, una </span= >de las formas de inic= io del proceso penal ex a= rt=C3=ADculo 297 del C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, es =E2=80=9Cla declaraci=C3=B3n que realiza una persona </spa= n>como consecue= ncia del conocimiento que posee sobre la comisi=C3=B3n de un hecho presunta= mente delictivo y tiene como fin =C3=BAltimo hacer llegar la noticia </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">criminal ante la Autoridad Judicial encargada de perseguirlo</span= >=E2=80=9D. ALONSO P=C3=89REZ, Francisco (Coord.) <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt">et al. (2004): Manual del Polic=C3=ADa</spa= n>, (Madrid, Editorial La Ley), p. 203. La denuncia es obligatoria, por= imperio del art=C3=ADculo 298 del mismo C=C3=B3digo, para los <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;funcionario= s que en raz=C3=B3n del ejercicio de sus competencias tengan conocimiento d= e la posible comisi=C3=B3n de un delito. Los delitos tributarios son de ac= ci=C3=B3n p=C3=BAblica, ex art=C3=ADculo 24 </sp= an>bis del C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal de Guatemala, por= lo que no es necesaria la denuncia para su persecuci=C3=B3n: es por imper= io del art=C3=ADculo 70 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario que la Administraci=C3= =B3n Tributaria se desprende del conocimiento del caso =E2=80=93declina<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 en su aspecto sancionador, y =E2=80=93en consecuencia=E2=80=93 remite las </spa= n>actuaciones a la jur= isdicci=C3=B3n penal, competente de acuerdo con la norma tributaria en come= ntarios. 221 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= rocesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos 112.4 y 115. 222 </= span>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 70; GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculo 107 bis<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= . = 58 </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1qERwlAUAMFjQOFogW7Sv0Klh1SAoABExJ+X2= a3g5BUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/= 9xWBwzxrN7VfXUI4x3VvjoCgNkeqwOGeFVbv5GDMz4ZOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgAv6AkMIBCLO+IwxAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" h= eight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Por o= tra parte, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario atribuye a la Administraci=C3=B3n Trib= utaria competencia para la persecuci=C3=B3n y castigo de todos los dem=C3=A1s il=C3= =ADcitos tributarios,223 las infracciones tributarias, tipificadas <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >fundamentalmente en el mismo C=C3=B3digo= y en las leyes tributarias especiales, bajo la llamada potestad <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n.<= /span>224 Estas infracciones, seg=C3=BAn la enumeraci=C3=B3n legal,<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">225= son: (i) el pago extempor=C3=A1neo de retenciones; (ii) la mora; = (iii) la omisi=C3=B3n del pago de tributos; (iv) la resistencia a la </span= > </span= >acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Admin= istraci=C3=B3n Tributaria; (v) el incumplimiento de las obligaciones </span= > </span= >tributarias fo= rmales; y (vi) los dem=C3=A1s tipos de infracciones tributarias establecida= s en las leyes tributarias especiales. = Desde ya, la enumeraci=C3=B3n previa hace patente la posible transgresi=C3= =B3n a la garant=C3=ADa sustantiva de non bis in =C3=ADdem,226 = en tanto la resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de = la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria es infracci=C3=B3n = ;y delito tributario <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">al mismo= tiempo. El peligro se maximiza al constatar que ambos tip= os de il=C3=ADcitos est=C3=A1n constituidos por las mismas conductas: obstaculiza= r o impedir la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, sea por (i) el incumplimien= to del requerimiento para el suministro de informaci=C3=B3n tributaria, contable o = financiera; o por (ii) obstruir el acceso inmediato a los soportes <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">materiales de la informaci=C3=B3n relevante a fines tributarios;</sp= an>227 o por (iii) estorbar la inspecci=C3=B3n o verificaci=C3=B3n de los lugares donde= se haya realizado el hecho imponible o donde reposen los elementos = <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">materiales necesarios para su determinaci=C3=B3n, para evitar el ri= esgo de alteraci=C3=B3n o destrucci=C3=B3n de </span= >evidencias.228 La =C3=BAnica diferencia entre ambos radica en la autoridad requirente,= como elemento material del il=C3=ADcito: la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria en la= infracci=C3=B3n,229 el juez penal en el delito.230 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;En e= l caso en el que, v=C3=A1lidamente, se argumente que la prohibici=C3=B3n de= bis in =C3=ADdem queda salvaguardada &= #xa0;al prorrogar la competen= cia de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para castigar, en el caso en el qu= e el &= #xa0;r= equerimiento de informaci=C3=B3n para la fiscalizaci=C3=B3n haya pasado a l= a jurisdicci=C3=B3n penal,231 entonces la </spa= n> = situaci=C3=B3n vulnera las garant=C3=ADas de reserva legal,</span= >232 proporcionalidad y de igualdad.233 En efecto, en= la situaci=C3=B3n descrita es =C3=BAnicamente la decisi=C3= =B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria la que determina cu=C3=A1l es </s= pan> la sanci=C3= =B3n aplicable en el caso concreto, si la =C2=ABadministrativa=C2=BB o la p= enal. De este modo, ante situaciones totalmente id=C3=A9nticas el castigo ser=C3=A1 muy = diferente, dependiendo del caso. Adem=C3=A1s del <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">non bis in =C3=ADdem sustantivo, la situaci=C3=B3n en comentarios vu= lnera otra garant=C3=ADa fundamental del orden sancionador. En efecto, el uso de la= conminaci=C3=B3n sancionadora para reforzar el deber de &= #xa0;colaboraci=C3=B3n con la= Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para aportar datos relevantes con fines tri= butarios atenta directamente co= ntra el derecho del ciudadano a que se le presuma inocente,234 </s= pan>y en cons= ecuencia 223 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3= =ADculo 69. 224 = Ver nota al pie 156. 225 <= /span>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 71. &#x= a0;226 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.3. </p= >227 Libros, documentos, archivos, sistemas inform=C3=A1ticos vin= culados con el pago de impuestos, etc. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo &#x= a0;Tributario, = art=C3=ADculos 93; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80= =9CD=E2=80=9D. 228 Esto es, cualquier l= ocal, establecimiento comercial o industrial, oficinas de dep=C3=B3sitos, c= ontenedores, cajas registradoras y medios de transporte. GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 93; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3= =ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD=E2=80=9D. 229 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">GU= ATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 93. <= /p>230 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD= =E2=80=9D. 231 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, art=C3=ADculo 90. 232 Ver se= cci=C3=B3n 2.1. 233 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.= 2. 234 = WEFFE (2010), p= p. 489-492; WEFFE (2018), pp. 173-180; MEDINA CALVO (2002), p. 42; y =C3=81= LVAREZ ECHAG=C3=9CE, Juan Manuel (2006): =E2=80=9CEl derecho a la no autoi= ncriminaci=C3=B3n y su aplicaci=C3=B3n en el =C3=A1mbito del Dere= cho 59 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;= base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAA= AAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALHDAkZwhSyMYG4mSD4jrYIWAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAXzimA5u4qqc6pyNs763u6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8= 2AL2DwICKhLI6AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />a no autoinculparse </span= >(<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">nemo tenet= ur se ipsum accusare). En efecto, el ejercicio estatal del ius puniendi <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">debe <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>fundamentarse en la dignidad humana, com= o todo el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico,235 lo que l= imita las posibilidades jur=C3=ADdicas de actividad probatoria estatal, en tanto es= te debe tratar al ciudadano con igual consideraci=C3=B3n y respeto.236 En consecuencia, la prueba de = cargo de la comisi=C3=B3n de un determinado il=C3=ADcito =E2=80=93como un delito, mucho menos u= na infracci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 no puede ser el resultado de la coac= ci=C3=B3n o el apremio; no es otro el efecto que tiene la tipificaci=C3=B3n de la= resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria como infracci=C3=B3n </sp= an>y <= /span>como de= lito, al obligar al ciudadano, a trav=C3=A9s de la sanci=C3=B3n, a aportar las que =E2=80=93eventualmente<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 = podr=C3=ADan ser las pruebas de su culpabilidad. Ello no es </spa= n> = justificable con base en el deber de colaboraci=C3=B3n con la Adm= inistraci=C3=B3n Tributaria: adem=C3=A1s de negar la = ;dignidad, una medida tal contr= adice el car=C3=A1cter necesario y proporcional <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">stricto sensu de toda forma de intervenci=C3=B3n sancionadora.237 </span= >3.1.3. Presunciones y Derecho= Sancionador Tributario. Sus l=C3=ADmites. </sp= an>La presunci= =C3=B3n es una regla que =E2=80=93estructuralmente=E2=80=93 <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">sintetiza un proceso deductivo, mediante el cual &= #xa0;se infiere =E2=80=93<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">d=C3=A1ndose por= probado=E2=80=93 un hecho desconocido a partir de un hecho conocido, que <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">normalmente lo acompa= =C3=B1a. En Derecho, una presunci=C3=B3n se compone =E2=80= =93as= =C3=AD= =E2=80=93=C2=BA de varios requisitos = 0;m=C3=ADnimos: (i) los = hechos conocidos, sobre los que se tiene certeza en raz=C3=B3n de su = plena prueba; (ii) los hechos desconocidos, que constituyen objeto de la= investigaci=C3=B3n y cuya certeza, en raz=C3=B3n de la falta de pruebas </= span> de su real= izaci=C3=B3n, se desconoce; y (iii) el juicio o factor l=C3=B3gico de pr= obabilidad o normalidad, que vincula = 0;probab= il=C3=ADsticamente a los primeros con los segundos, de forma que si los hec= hos conocidos ocurren, normalmente los hechos desconocidos tambi=C3=A9n habr=C3=A1= n ocurrido.238 El uso de presunciones en el Derecho Sancionador es naturalmente l= imitado, y encuentra mayores cauces en el Derecho Procesal Penal. Probablemente, el= m=C3=A1s importante de todos es el de la presunci=C3=B3n = d= e inocencia,239 regla que permite deducir = iuris tantum la inocencia del acusado en = raz=C3=B3n de la dignidad que le es inherente como persona humana, y que determina = =E2=80= =93con base en la buena fe=E2=80=93 la suposici=C3=B3n de que este habr=C3=A1 = dirigido su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB hacia la realizaci=C3=B3n del= Derecho, dentro del =C3=A1mbito de actuaci=C3=B3n permitido por el ordenamiento.</= span>240 Otro caso es el de la llamada presunci=C3=B3n d= e voluntariedad de la conducta constitutiva del acto antijur= =C3=ADdico, necesaria voluntariedad de la conducta <= /span>t=C3=ADpi= ca.241 Otros casos son, por ejemplo, aquel que fundamenta la inspecci=C3= =B3n y registro judicial de lugares, cosas o personas en la sospecha de que en ello= s se encuentran vestigios del delito o se oculta </s= pan>Sancionador Tribut= ario. (La posibilidad de utilizar pruebas obtenidas en un proceso de verifi= caci=C3=B3n como fundamento de sanciones penales)=E2=80=9D, Cr=C3=B3nica Tributaria No. 118 (Madrid, Instituto de Estudios= Fiscales), pp. 13-14. Disponible en: https://www.economistas.es/conteni= do/REAF/gestor/01-Alvarez.pdf. 235 Ver = Secci=C3=B3n 2. 236 DWORKIN (2002), pp.= 388-389 237 Ver Secciones 2.2.2. y 2= .2.3. 238 WEFFE (2018), pp. 176-177. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">239 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3= =ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 14; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=AD= culo 14. 240 WEFFE (2018), p. 176. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">241 WEFFE (2018), pp. 197-198; = y VOGEL, Joachim (1994): =E2=80=9CLos L=C3=ADmites Constitucionales a las P= resunciones del Derecho Penal Econ=C3=B3mico Alem=C3=A1n=E2=80= =9D, en ARROYO ZAPATERO, Luis y TIEDEMANN, Klaus (Edit.), = Estudios de Derecho penal econ=C3=B3mico &= #xa0;(Cuenca,= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; letter-spacing:0.05pt">Universidad = ;de Castilla = -= La = Mancha), p. 46. Disponible en: http://www.cienciaspenales.net/files/2016/= 09/5limites-constitucionales-a-las-presunciones-del-derecho-penal- <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> economi= co-aleman.pdf. 60 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJREFUeJzt0LENwlAUwECjpEOskB2zShZj= GjoKhqB4fHE3geUCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAA/sttOmARW3XPL773rl7TEQCsbZ8OWMRRndVjOoTlPatrOgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+wQcADAQDGkpAXQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>el imputado,242 el del anticipo de pr= ueba cuando por alguna raz=C3=B3n se temiere que sea imposible <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> practicar la prueba testimonial en la audiencia de juicio,243 <= /span>y el peligro de fuga que fundamenta el &= #xa0;decreto de prisi=C3=B3n = preventiva.244 En el Derecho Sancionador, la presunci=C3=B3n iuris et de iure = de inimputabilidad en caso de minoridad245 </spa= n>es de uso ampliamente difundido: no es imputab= le bajo ninguna circunstancia el menor de edad246. Tambi=C3=A9n se establecen = bajo presunciones la peligrosidad =E2=80=93o mejor dicho, la falta de ella=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">que se deduce de la naturaleza del delito cometido, sus m=C3=B3viles y circ= unstancias a los efectos de la suspensi=C3=B3n condicional de la pena y del perd=C3= =B3n judicial,247 y el standard de conciencia del car= =C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico de la conducta =E2=80=93y por esa v=C3=ADa, de uno de los elemento= s de la culpabilidad=E2=80=93248 en los delitos de fabricaci=C3=B3n o tenencia de materiales explosivos<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">249= y enc= ubrimiento impropio,250 as=C3=AD como en el caso de la receptaci=C3=B3n = = =E2=80=93aprov= echamiento de cosas provenientes de delito=E2=80=93 respecto del derecho de propiedad a= legadamente detentado por el ve= ndedor.251 Sin embargo, el uso de presunciones en el Derech= o Sancionador supone interferencias con varios </spa= n>principios fu= ndamentales.252 El uso de inversiones de la carga de la prueba afecta a = la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia= , de manera que tales inversiones equivalen al uso de presunciones de culp= abilidad. En t=C3=A9rminos generales, estas suponen la prueba de la culpabilidad a partir= de la comprobaci=C3=B3n de meras circunstancias de hecho que, por s=C3=AD solas, n= o implican la prueba de la conexi=C3=B3n entre el autor y el acto <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>antijur=C3=ADdico =E2=80=93nexo psicol=C3=B3gi= co entre el autor y su hecho, que compone el llamado =E2=80=9Ctipo subjetiv= o=E2=80=9D y <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">se encuentra en la= tipicidad=E2=80=93, o bien, omiten cons= iderar las circunstancias concomitantes que puedan afectar: (i) la conciencia y la libertad, sean del acto= antijur=C3=ADdico realizado =E2=80=93imputabilidad=E2=80=93 o de su ilicitud =E2=80=93conciencia de la ilicitud del acto antijur=C3= =ADdico=E2=80=93, o bien, (ii) la =C2=ABcapacidad de elegir=C2=BB entre actuar seg=C3= =BAn &= #xa0;e= l derecho de actuar en contra de =C3=A9l, esto es, la normalidad volitiva, = todas elementos de la culpabilidad.253 De ese modo, las presunciones de culpabilidad no= son sino muestra de un importante retraso para el Derecho Sancionador.254 </span= >Estas posibles zonas de intersecci=C3= =B3n entre las presunciones y el Derecho Sancionador justifican la <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>formulaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, de acuerdo con la cual las presunciones establecidas sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >infracciones y sa= nciones son siempre iuris tantum.255 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Si bien ello proc= ura minimizar la posible 242 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= rocesal Penal, art=C3=ADculo 187. 243 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">G= UATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos 317 y 348. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;244 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art= =C3=ADculos 259 y 261. 245 Vid. VOGEL = (1994), p. 44. 246 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Penal, art=C3=ADculo 23.1. 247 GUATE= MALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 72.2 y 83.3. </span= >248 Sin embargo, VOGEL pone de manifiesto la discusi=C3=B3n doctrinal= respecto de la constitucionalidad de figuras de este tipo, = ;sobre la base = de considerar a estas construcciones como aut=C3=A9nticas presunciones de c= ulpabilidad. Para ello, Vogel pone como ejemplo el caso =E2=80=93precisamente=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de la receptaci=C3=B3n. VOGEL (1994), p. 50. En el mismo sentido, WEFFE (2= 018), pp. 177-180. 249 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 287. 250 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">G= UATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, Art=C3=ADculo 475.2. </= p>251 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, Art=C3=ADculo 485.5. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 252 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Con acierto, VOGEL identifica que el uso de presunciones afe= ctan a los principios de reserva de ley, b=C3=BAsqueda de la = 0;verdad materi= al, necesidad de convicci=C3=B3n judicial, in dubio pro reo y nemo tenetur. VOGEL (1994), pp. 48, 52. Ver tambi=C3=A9n </span= > secci= =C3=B3n 3.1.2. 253 WEFFE (2018), p. 177= . = 254 VOGEL (1994), p. 52. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;255 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Art=C3=ADcul= o 72. 61 </spa= n><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgk2s6sMRTfdU9HWG9v3qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= MOLqUCAkIWonEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" sty= le=3D"position:absolute" />inconstitucionalidad de estas presunciones, el objetiv= o se logra solo parcialmente. Como la exposici=C3=B3n previa lo evidencia, es obvio que el uso de presun= ciones irrefutables para establecer elementos del tipo subjetivo o la conciencia = de la ilicitud de la conducta punible viola flagrantemente las garant=C3=AD= as de reserva legal y culpabilidad. Sin embargo, este no es = un problema que se resuelva con el uso de </p= >presunciones rela= tivas. El ataque a los principios en comentarios a trav=C3=A9s de las presu= nciones, ahora iuris tantum, se traslada, desde el =C3=A1mbito del Derecho mater= ial al procedimental: la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia, trasladando la carga de la p= rueba al imputado y no a la acusaci=C3=B3n, como es lo correcto, <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">especialmente al obligar al ciudadano a proveer la prueba que pudiera = ser utilizada eventualmente en su contra para poder desvir= tuar la presunci=C3=B3n, instrumentada en el contexto del deber de informac= i=C3=B3n a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, vulnerando as=C3=AD el nemo tenetur, o prohibici=C3=B3n de autoinculpaci=C3=B3n.256 <= /span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">3.1.4. </spa= n> = Con= currencia de il=C3=ADcitos tributarios. Concurso y reincidencia. <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = Es perfectame= nte posible que una misma persona cometa m=C3=A1s de un il=C3=ADcito tribut= ario, sea con uno257 o con varios actos. Es igualmente posi= ble que =E2=80=93ante algunos o todos est= os hechos=E2=80=93 el ius puniendi </spa= n>haya </span= > </span= >sido ejercido = previamente, y a pesar de ello el infractor insiste en lesionar bienes jur= =C3=ADdicos a trav=C3=A9s de conductas tipificadas legalment= e. En ese escenario, la proporcionalidad258 demanda del ordenamiento </= span> </= span>una respuesta adecuada, que casti= gue los varios hechos cometidos en relaci=C3=B3n con el (mayor) grado de </= span> </= span>da=C3=B1o al bien jur=C3=ADdico q= ue ellos representan en conjunto, ante la inhabilidad de la conminaci=C3=B3= n = 0;sancionadora previa para indu= cir al infractor al cumplimiento de la ley.259 El Derecho Sancionador <= /span> <= /span>regula es= tas situaciones a trav=C3=A9s de los distintos supuestos de concurrencia d= e il=C3=ADcitos tributarios: concurso y reincidencia. = 3.1.4.1. Concurso de il=C3=ADci= tos tributarios En cualquiera de sus formas, el concurs= o de il=C3=ADcitos supone la lesi=C3=B3n m=C3=BAltiple a bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos, independientemente de si se trata de las varias lesione= s al mismo o a distintos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos. Cuando &= #xa0;e= se da=C3=B1o m=C3=BAltiple se produce a trav=C3=A9s de una =C3=BAnica condu= cta t=C3=ADpica, estamos en presencia del il=C3=ADcito &= #xa0;p= luriofensivo, objeto material del llamado concurso ideal de il=C3=ADcitos<= /span>: la vi= olaci=C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur=C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ata= que a varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93 por un mismo comportamiento.260 </= span>Por su p= arte, cuando <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ese menoscabo se p= roduce a trav=C3=A9s de varias conductas t=C3=ADpicas, f=C3=ADsicamente y c= ausalmente diferenciables, nos = hallamos frente a un caso del llamado concurso real de infracciones= : la violaci= =C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur=C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ataque a varios bienes jur=C3=AD= dicos= =E2=80=93 a trav=C3=A9s de varios comportamientos.261 = Sobre la base de = la proporcionalidad, los sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos reaccionan de tres grandes= modos frente a todas las formas de concurrencia de infracc= iones: de mayor a menor, en raz=C3=B3n de su intensidad en el castigo de los hechos= subsecuentes, tenemos los sistemas de acumulaci=C3=B3n material, acumulaci= =C3=B3n 256 Ver nota al pie 165, y secci=C3=B3n 3.1.2. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">257 A trav=C3=A9s de la conducta plurio= fensiva. Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 258 Ver = secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 259 WEFFE (2010), pp.= 367-368. 260 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3, y = WEFFE (2010), p. 369-370. 261 WEFFE (2= 010), pp. 372-373. 62 <img src=3D"= data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCS= VQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcE= Ie1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808"= alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />jur=C3=ADdica o absorci=C3=B3n.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 262 En= el caso del concurso, el sistema elegido por el legislador penal guatemalt= eco &#= xa0;es una mixtura: acumulaci= =C3=B3n material para el concurso real,263 y acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3= =ADdica para el concurso ideal.= 264 Paralelamente, el legislador tributario guate= malteco opt=C3=B3 por la acumulaci=C3=B3n material para todos <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> </spa= n>los casos: de acuerdo con el C=C3= =B3digo Tributario, =E2=80=9Ccuando un hecho constituya m=C3=A1s de una in= fracci=C3=B3n se sancionar=C3=A1 cada una de ellas= =E2=80=9D.265 En este sentido, si bien la acumulaci=C3=B3= n material es la forma m=C3=A1s antigua de respuesta al problema de = <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">la concurrencia de infracciones, la tendencia actual del Derecho Sa= ncionador es la opuesta, tal como lo evidencia el propio C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guate= mala.266 Prima facie, la acumulaci=C3=B3n material es sospechosa </span= > </span= >de desproporcionada por excesiva, y e= n consecuencia por innecesaria.267 Adem=C3=A1s de= castigar, la sanci=C3=B3n es un mecanismo de resocializaci=C3=B3n, que siempre tie= ne como norte la preservaci=C3=B3n de la dignidad humana, en los t=C3=A9rminos trat= ados previamente.268 Ello justifica el car=C3=A1c= ter subsidiario de la intervenci=C3=B3n = s= ancionadora, y la adopci=C3=B3n general de l=C3=ADmites generales de punici= =C3=B3n que, al utilizar el sistema de = acumulaci=C3=B3n = material, preserven la proporcionalidad de la intervenci=C3=B3n punitiva.</= span>269 Considerando que la legislaci=C3=B3n penal es fondo general supletorio para la= regulaci=C3=B3n del Derecho Tributario Sancionador = en todo aquello que el C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario no ha previsto expresamente,270 respetuosamente <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>consideramos que los l=C3=ADmites de ag= ravaci=C3=B3n de sanciones previstos para el concurso real de delitos son <= /span> <= /span>totalmente trasladables a la reg= ulaci=C3=B3n infraccional del C=C3=B3digo Tributario, por lo que constituye= n = 0;barrer= as infranqueables a la imposici=C3=B3n de sanciones por la Administraci=C3= =B3n Tributaria. Igualmente, es llamativo el hecho de que l= a regulaci=C3=B3n tributaria resuelva el concurso ideal de infracciones a t= rav=C3=A9s del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n material, mientra= s que la regulaci=C3=B3n penal resuelve el mismo problema a trav=C3=A9s del empleo = del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica. Ello sugiere una mayor grave= dad de las infracciones tributarias frente a los delitos, tributarios o no, tipific= ados en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, lo que prima = = facie = es contrario a la proporcionalidad stricto sensu</s= pan>271 del Derecho Sancionador. 3.1.4.2. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">Reinciden= cia. Por su parte, se habl= ar=C3=A1 de reincidencia =E2=80=93en lugar de concurso real=E2=80=93 cuando entre uno <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o varios= =E2=80=93 </s= pan>de esos <= /span> <= /span>hechos y = los dem=C3=A1s existe una decisi=C3=B3n condenatoria firme, que imponga al = autor de estos il=C3=ADcitos una sanci=C3=B3n por las conductas sancionables cometi= das con antelaci=C3=B3n a la reiteraci=C3=B3n sancionable, siempre <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>que la nueva acci=C3=B3n punible sea co= metida dentro de un plazo m=C3=A1ximo =E2=80=93fijado legalmente=E2=80=93 desde que 262 = Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 263 GUA= TEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 69. 264 = GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 70. <= /span>265 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 73.= = 266 </= span>GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 69 y 70. En el caso del concurso real, la acu= mulaci=C3=B3n de penas no podr=C3=A1 exceder del triple de la de mayor dur= aci=C3=B3n, y si todas tuvieren igual duraci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n exceder= del triple de la pena. En todo caso, la acumulaci=C3=B3n no puede exceder= de 50 a=C3=B1os de privaci=C3=B3n de libertad, o de Q 200.000 de penas pec= uniarias. Para el concurso ideal, el sistema elegido es el de la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica: se aplicar=C3=A1 la sanci= =C3=B3n m=C3=A1s grave, aumentada en una tercera parte. </= span>267 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. </span= > 268 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2= . 269 <= /span>Vid. ESPA=C3=91A= , Fiscal=C3=ADa General del Estado, Circular 1-2014 sobre = la acumulaci=C3=B3n de penas, p. 2. Disponible en: = 0;https://www.f= iscal.es/fiscal/PA_WebApp_SGNTJ_NFIS/descarga/CIRCULAR_1_2014_LA_ACUMULACIO= N_DE _CONDENAS.pdf?idFile=3D6bb5d6df-a6b0-45f6-9e84-ece31e6f98df. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 270 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 9. 271 Ver secc= i=C3=B3n 2.2.3. 63 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMo= CAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJz= tzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfY= AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positio= n:absolute" />el acto sancionador haya adquirido firmeza.272 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;En G= uatemala la reincidencia est=C3=A1 regulada sectorialmente. En el Derecho T= ributario Sancionador, la reincidencia se verifica cuando en= tre las distintas infracciones atribuibles al mismo autor existe una </span= > <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">resoluci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, debidamente = notificada, dentro del plazo de cuatro a=C3=B1os, </= span>lapso que =E2=80=93suponemos=E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">se cuenta desde el d=C3=ADa h=C3=A1bil siguiente a su pr=C3=A1ctica, = que es el momento en el que la notificaci=C3=B3n surte sus efectos, dotando de efic= acia al acto administrativo.273 La f=C3=B3rmula d= e agrava= ci=C3=B3n de penas producto de la reincidencia en sede tributaria es totalm= ente objetiva: en el caso de </spa= n>sanciones pec= uniarias, un incremento del 50% de la multa como regla general, lo que pued= e ampliarse =E2=80=93en el caso que la multa est=C3=A9 determinada con base en un porcent= aje del tributo omitido=E2=80=93 hasta un 1= 00% de dicho tributo. En el caso de la comisi=C3=B3n de las =C2=ABinfraccio= nes espec=C3=ADficas=C2=BB asociadas a la producci=C3=B3n y conservaci=C3=B3n de medios de prueba de la re= alizaci=C3=B3n del hecho imponible,274 la reincidencia supone la disoluci=C3=B3n, y la cancelaci=C3=B3n= de la inscripci=C3=B3n mercantil y de la patente de comercio de la persona jur=C3= =ADdica.275 Como puede verse, el concepto tributario de rei= ncidencia no exige la firmeza del = acto de determinaci=C3=B3n de las sanciones previas, ni tampoco abre la posibilidad= de que ese acto sea impugnado ante la jurisdicci=C3=B3n tributaria. Eso genera, por supuesto, una serie= de problemas. En primer lugar, la agravaci=C3=B3n de sanci=C3=B3n por reincidencia, en los casos en los q= ue el acto que impone la sanci=C3=B3n no es res iudicata, viola la presun= ci=C3=B3n de inocencia:276 a trav=C3=A9s de la sanci=C3=B3n impuesta al = segundo il=C3=ADcito se castigar=C3=A1 al sujeto por la comisi=C3=B3n del primero, sin que previamente s= e haya determinado su culpabilidad mediante una decisi=C3=B3n definitivamente firme. Este supuesto se maxi= miza en el caso de que la nueva infracci=C3=B3n se cometa mientras se est=C3=A1 controlando judicialmente = la validez del acto administrativo que ha impuesto la primera sanci=C3=B3n. En propiedad, la norma aplic= able a estos supuestos es la del concurso, y no la de la reincidencia: la firmeza del acto es un requisito= esencial a la diferenciaci=C3=B3n de ambas figuras. </sp= an> Lo contrario= supone el riesgo cierto de vulneraci=C3=B3n, sea de la proporcionalidad o = de la prohibici=C3=B3n del bis in =C3=ADdem.277 </p= >Adicionalmente, e= s posible identificar un r=C3=A9gimen diferenciado de agravaci=C3=B3n de sa= nciones en el caso de reincidencia. Para la aplicaci=C3=B3n = de sanciones pecuniarias, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario distingue en funci=C3= =B3n de la t=C3=A9cnica de tipificaci=C3=B3n de la pena, lo = que parece configurar un trato desproporcionado, por = ;discriminatorio. La situaci=C3= =B3n se agrava por la objetivaci=C3=B3n de la medida de agravaci=C3=B3n de pena = en caso = de reincidencia, que no permite al =C3=B3rgano encargado de la aplicaci=C3= =B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n ponderar las distintas alternativas = de castigo, en funci=C3=B3n de la finalidad resocializadora y de la subsidi= ariedad de la intervenci=C3=B3n punitiva exigidas por la proporcionalidad.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 278 Desde el punto de vista del Derecho Penal stricto sensu<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, la reinciden= cia se utiliza tambi=C3=A9n como circunstancia agravante de la responsabilidad penal en sentido estricto.<= /span>279 Ella sirve como par=C3=A1metro 272 WEFFE (2010), = p. 371-372. 273 En el caso de la notifi= caci=C3=B3n personal. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 130= y 8.1.c). 274 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, art=C3=ADculo 85. 275 En nuestra opini=C3=B3n, esta =C3=BAltima disposici=C3=B3n es in= constitucional, por las razones que desarrollaremos en esta misma <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > secci=C3= =B3n al comentar la regulaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal respecto de la re= incidencia. 276 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">277 Ver secciones= 2.2. y 2.3. 278 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 279 GUATEMALA, = C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 27.23. 64 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJ= ztzkENgEAQALFBATYQiQCM4eveYGBzSaugBQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HdMBzZ= xVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAjwX+AgICYbAd3wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" = width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= de aplicaci= =C3=B3n objetiva de la pena acceso= ria de disoluci=C3=B3n, en el caso de la responsabilidad = penal de personas jur=C3=ADdicas, tanto en general280 c= omo para determinados delitos,281 o de la duplica= ci=C3=B3n de las penas en el caso de la conducci=C3=B3n de v= eh=C3=ADculos de motor bajo los efectos de sustancias, o de manera temerari= a o imprudente que ponga en riesgo a los dem=C3=A1s particip= antes en el tr=C3=A1fico.282 En nuestra materia, la reincidencia es determinativa de la p=C3=A9rdida = definitiva de la patente de comercio en el caso de la comisi=C3=B3n del delito de defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria, a trav=C3=A9s de la altera= ci=C3=B3n o destrucci=C3=B3n de los mecanismos </spa= n>de control fi= scal, colocados en m=C3=A1quinas registradoras o timbradoras, sellos fiscal= es y similares,283 de apropiaci=C3=B3n indebida de tributos284 y de resistencia a la acci=C3= =B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria.285 = ;Es nece= sario reiterar aqu=C3=AD, respetuosamente, las objeciones previas respecto = de la razonabilidad de la soluci=C3=B3n legal al respecto, t= anto en sede tributaria como penal stricto sensu. La </s= pan>objetivaci=C3=B3n de la reincidencia, a trav=C3=A9s del empleo de penas fijas para agrava= r la responsabilidad del infractor, no permite una adecuada individualizaci=C3=B3n = de la pena en raz=C3=B3n de las circunstancias f=C3=A1cticas y jur=C3=ADdic= as que rodean la comisi=C3=B3n del hecho, lo que atenta cont= ra la proporcionalidad, bajo las formas de idoneidad y &= #xa0;necesidad. Adem=C3=A1s, = la cancelaci=C3=B3n de la patente de comercio =E2=80=93o peor a=C3=BAn, la disoluci=C3= =B3n= =E2=80=93 es una respuesta maximalista <= /span>del Der= echo Sancionador guatemalteco a los supuestos de concurrencia de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >il=C3=ADcitos, que respetuosamente consi= deramos desproporcionada: son formas =E2=80=93directa en un caso, indirecta en el otro=E2=80=93 de muert= e civil, que atentan gravemente contra la libertad econ=C3=B3mica de los so= cios de la persona jur=C3=ADdica cuya personalidad haya sido= disuelta, hayan sido part=C3=ADcipes o no de los delitos = cuya concurrencia config= ura la reincidencia.286 3.1.4.3. Delito continuado &#= xa0;Si bien el C=C3=B3digo Trib= utario nada dice al respecto, el C=C3=B3digo Penal287 <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">regula los casos del llamado concurso continuado de il=C3=ADcitos. En estos c= asos, una pluralidad de conductas f=C3=ADsicamente diferenciables es </span= > </span= >susceptible de= unidad (i) de imputaci=C3=B3n, en tanto son realizadas o dominadas288 por la misma persona; (ii) de lesi=C3=B3n, al perseguir la vulneraci=C3=B3n del mis= mo bien jur=C3=ADdico;289 y (ii) de designio, en tanto 280 </s= pan>De m=C3=A1s que dudosa constitucionalidad, en tanto supone una forma= de muerte civil que lesiona gravemente la libertad = econ=C3=B3mica de los = socios. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 38. </= span>281 Como por ejemplo la explotaci=C3=B3n ilegal de recurs= os naturales. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 346. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;282 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 157= . = 283 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculo 358.B. 284 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358.C. 285 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358.D. Es importante destacar = ac=C3=A1 que, en el supuesto del concurso aparente <= /p>de il=C3=ADcitos </span= >=E2=80=93consunci=C3=B3n=E2= =80=93 entre los dos tipos de resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscal= izadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, el </p= >contenido en el C=C3=B3d= igo Penal y el regulado en el art=C3=ADculo 286 <= /span>A este respecto, es digno de menci=C3=B3n el caso de la <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">Panader=C3=ADa Berna, ubicada en el Paseo de la Sexta Aven= ida, Zona 1, Casco Hist=C3=B3rico de la Ciudad de Guatemala, a la que </sp= an>curiosamente el cambio de nombre social salv=C3=B3 d= e la clausura definitiva por falta de emisi=C3=B3n de facturas, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">ex art=C3=ADculo 85.1 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Ver PREN= SA LIBRE, Cierre de Panader=C3=ADa Berna ser=C3=A1 = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">temporal, no definitivo, (13/3/2017). Disponible en: http= s://www.prensalibre.com/economia/panaderia-berna-acepta- </= span>cerrar-en-definit= iva/. 287 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal,= art=C3=ADculo 71. 288 Seg=C3=BAn R</sp= an>OXIN, =E2=80=9CPosee el dominio del hecho y= es autor quien en la realizaci=C3=B3n del delito aparece como figura clave= , como personaje central por su influencia determinante o de= cisiva en el acontecimiento=E2=80=9D. ROXI= N (1997), Tomo II, p. 75. 289 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal= , art=C3=ADculo 71.2. 65 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:63"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9VJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAkZ= whSyMYO6+JAjYXNIqaAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HNMBzZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4GsB+/8CAuRNOfgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" heigh= t=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />constituyen etapas en la realizaci=C3=B3n del plan delictual del= autor.290 Dicho en otras palabras, en el delito continuado se atribuye a varias conductas humanas el s= ignificado jur=C3=ADdico de acci=C3=B3n =C3=BAnica, en tanto constituyen partes de = la realizaci=C3=B3n final de la voluntad del agente, pues aun cuando f=C3= =ADsicamente estas acciones puedan considerarse como separadas, en tanto constituye= n modificaciones aisladas o individualizadas del mundo exterior, no es posible cons= iderarlas jur=C3=ADdicamente como unidades aisladas, = ;sino como partes de un todo, e= n tanto forman parte de la misma acci=C3=B3n final.291 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">En Guatemala, el = = delito continuado se castiga so= bre la base del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica, con la pena apli= cable al delito aumentada en una tercera parte. = En este sentido, es nuestra opini=C3=B3n= que el uso del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica para castigar el = = concurso continuado es plenamen= te trasladable al Derecho Tributario Sancionador.292 Dada su <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = naturaleza sancionadora,293 </s= pan>la regla sobre delito continuado es de aplicaci=C3=B3n suplet= oria a las infracciones tributarias por imperio del propio C=C3=B3digo Penal,</span= >294 sin que la redacci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Tributario respecto de la concurrencia d= e infracciones tributarias pueda interpretarse como = contradicci=C3=B3n impl=C3=ADci= ta con la regla penal y, en consecuencia, como norma de aplicaci=C3=B3n esp= ecial a = estos casos. Una vez m=C3=A1s, los principios de proporcionalidad y de igua= ldad soportan la conclusi=C3=B3n expuesta, toda vez que lo c= ontrario =E2=80=93el empleo de la acumulaci=C3=B3n material para el castigo de la </spa= n> </spa= n>infracci=C3=B3n continuada en materi= a tributaria sancionadora=E2=80=93 implicar=C3=ADa la aplicaci=C3=B3n de sanciones </sp= an> </sp= an>desproporcionadas <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">a la entidad de los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos protegidos en el Derecho T= ributario Sancionador, y desiguales frente a la misma lesi=C3=B3n= del bien jur=C3=ADdico causada de un modo distinto. 3.1.5. Responsabilidad tributaria sancionador= a. Entre otras posibles acepciones del t=C3=A9rmino,</s= pan>295 la responsabilidad denota el v=C3=ADnculo entre = la acci=C3=B3n cuya consecuencia es jur=C3=ADdicamente reg= ulada y la persona que deba sufrir, por tal circunstancia, una <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> modificaci=C3=B3n en su status jur=C3=ADdico.296 En materia sancionadora, como consecuencia del principio de <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> culpabilidad, la responsabilidad es eminentemente personal: el binomio c= orrelativo =C2=ABacto antijur=C3=ADdico- = sanci=C3=B3n=C2= =BB solo puede establecerse respecto del autor del acto tipificado como il= =C3=ADcito. De tal modo, la sanci=C3=B3n es necesariamente c= onsecuencia de la relaci=C3=B3n entre el acto antijur=C3=ADdico y su autor = culpable: =C3=BAnicamente la persona que dirige consciente y= libremente su conducta a la realizaci=C3=B3n del acto il=C3=ADcito = <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">es la que puede, l=C3=B3gicamente, ser objeto del reproche que es e= sencial al concepto de culpabilidad y, en </p= >consecuencia, ser responsable.297 290 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 71.1. 291 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= WEFFE (2010), pp. 401-402. 292 Vid. WEF= FE (2010), p. 403. 293 WEFFE (2010), pp= . 145-155; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 235-246. 294 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 9. </span= >295 Ver nota al pie 36. 296 W= effe; La responsabilidad= =E2=80=A6 p. 569. 297 </sp= an>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4, y WEFFE (2018), p. 275. = = 66 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= AB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>3.1= .5.1. Regla general. = Personalidad. Autor=C3=ADa lato sensu y formas de participaci=C3=B3n en i= l=C3=ADcitos tributarios. La personalidad es la regla= general que acoge el C=C3=B3digo Tributario para la atribuci=C3=B3n de res= ponsabilidad sancionadora tributaria.298 <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">As=C3=AD, la responsabilidad personal por infracciones tributarias e= n Guatemala se atribuye a los autores, quienes son definidos legalmente en sentido = ampl=C3=ADsimo,299 de una manera que <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> incluye al <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">inductor y al auxiliador bajo un concepto unitar= io de autor=C3=ADa.300 As=C3=AD, adem=C3=A1s del autor stricto <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> <= /span>sensu, sujeto con <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">dominio de= l hecho o en rol de garante </span= >por su participaci=C3=B3n directa en la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la </s= pan> conducta il=C3=ADcita,301 el C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario equipara el r=C3=A9gimen de los autores: (i) a los instigado= res, qui= enes inducen directamente al autor a cometer la infracci=C3=B3n;<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">30= 2 y (iii) a los cooperadores necesarios, = que son los que, sin ser= autores en sentido estricto, colaboran decisivamente en la ejecuci=C3=B3n = de la = conducta sancionable, al= punto que sin su participaci=C3=B3n el il=C3=ADcito no se habr=C3=ADa come= tido.303 La regulaci=C3=B3n es similar a la contenida en el C=C3=B3digo Penal de G= uatemala,304 que tambi=C3=A9n define a todas estas figuras como autores, incluyendo a quienes <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93</span= >previo acuer= do para la realizaci=C3=B3n del delito=E2=80=93 presencian su ejecuci=C3=B3n sin tomar parte activa en ella.</sp= an>305 Seg=C3=BAn la definici=C3=B3n legal, c=C3=B3mplic= es son: (i) el alentador, quien anime al autor en su decisi=C3=B3n de cometer el = delito sin llegar a instigarlo; (ii) el cooperador sub sequens,= quien mediante acuerdo previo promete ayuda para luego de cometido el il= =C3=ADcito; y (iii) el cooperador stricto sensu<span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">, que colabora con la comisi=C3=B3n del delito proporcionando informac= i=C3=B3n o medios para cometer el delito, o act=C3=BAan como intermediarios entre l= os part=C3=ADcipes para obtener su concurrencia en el delito.306 <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Obviamente, ante el silencio de la norma tributaria, la regulaci=C3= =B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal respecto del alentador, el cooperador sub sequens </spa= n>y el cooperador stricto sensu <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">es tambi=C3=A9n= = ;aplicab= le a las infracciones tributarias. La equiparaci=C3=B3n de v= arias formas de participaci=C3=B3n a la autor=C3=ADa es una soluci=C3=B3n d= if=C3=ADcilmente conciliable con la proporcionalidad = strict= o sensu307 sobre la base de razones de pol=C3=ADtica criminal,<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3= 08 en tanto la medida = de la responsabil= idad del autor en sentido estricto es superior a la de los part=C3=ADcipes.= A este respecto, baste recordar que es el autor quien dirig= e directamente su conducta a da=C3=B1ar al bien jur=C3=ADdico, mientras </s= pan> que los par= t=C3=ADcipes, para serlo, requieren del autor para lograr el mismo objetivo= . A todo evento, como forma de = racionalizar la expansi=C3=B3n punitiva que introduce la regla, a=C3=BAn cu= ando la sanci=C3=B3n de instigadores &= #xa0;y cooperadores necesario= s se determine bajo los mismos par=C3=A1metros de la sanci=C3=B3n aplicable= al autor, 298 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art= =C3=ADculos 77 y 79. 299 GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 79. 300 </sp= an>Ver, Modelo de C=C3=B3digo Tributario para Am=C3=A9rica Latina, art= =C3=ADculo 80. 301 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.1. 302 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.2. </= span>303 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.3= . = 304 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculos 36 y 37. Vid. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 119= , 127. 305 Con a= cierto, la doctrina guatemalteca ha denunciado la inconstitucionalidad de e= sta =C3=BAltima forma de participaci=C3=B3n, sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= la base de su incompatibilidad con los principios de reserva legal y culpab= ilidad, bajo la forma de personalidad. Sin embargo, = GONZ=C3=81LEZ= CAUHAP= =C3=89-CAZAUX sugiere = una matizaci=C3=B3n adecuada para resolver el problema: quienes est=C3=A9n = en esta situaci=C3=B3n ser=C3=A1n part=C3=ADcipes en la medida en la que = el part=C3=ADcipe tenga una posibilidad real de intervenir en la comisi=C3= =B3n del delito, al punto que su mera presencia pueda asegurar el resultad= o lesivo. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 128- = 0;129. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 306 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 37. 307 Ver sec= ci=C3=B3n 2.2.3. 308 </spa= n>GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 127. </= span>67 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALHDAkZwhSyMYG4mSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAXzimA5u4qqc6pyNs763u6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD82AL2DwICKhLI6AAAAABJRU= 5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:abs= olute" />para que pueda hablarse de participaci=C3=B3n es necesario que, conforme= con el principio de accesoriedad, h= aya una infracci=C3=B3n cometida por un autor, a quienes los part=C3=ADcipes co= mplementan en la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la infracci=C3=B3n. En resumen, sin autor no hay part=C3=ADcipes, por l= o que = =E2=80=93en ausencia de autor=E2=80=93 no es posible = exigir responsabilidad s= ancionadora a los supuestos part=C3=ADcipes. 3.1.5.2. La responsabilidad del asesor profesional. = =C2=BFAutor=C3=ADa o participaci=C3=B3n? Un caso particular es el de la resp= onsabilidad de los asesores profesionales en el Derecho Sancionador = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Tributario guat= emalteco. El C=C3=B3digo Tributario ordena a estos profesionales la emisi= =C3=B3n de sus <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">dict=C3=A1menes,= certificaciones u otras constancias similares vinculadas con la materia tr= ibutar= ia =E2=80=9Cde </sp= an>conformidad con las normas y= principios legales, cient=C3=ADficos o t=C3=A9cnicas aplicables<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">=E2=80=9D;309 esto es, observando las reglas t=C3=A9cnicas de su oficio como el standard </sp= an>de actuaci= =C3=B3n diligente para el ejercicio de sus funciones. En principio, ello supondr=C3=ADa que la actuaci= =C3=B3n del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico que, desapegada de estos <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = principios, sirva= de base para la comisi=C3=B3n de un il=C3=ADcito tributario generar=C3=ADa= para aquel responsabilidad, bien por participaci=C3=B3n en el il=C3=ADcito cometido por el su= jeto pasivo tributario, bajo la figura de la = cooperaci=C3=B3= n, sea esta necesaria o stricto sensu, o bien por autor=C3=ADa310 en determinados casos, dependiendo </sp= an> </sp= an>del rol jugado por el profesional o= t=C3=A9cnico dentro de la organizaci=C3=B3n empresarial, fundamentalmente = = como rep= resentante del contribuyente.311 A su vez, ese pareciera ser el sentido = que le atribuye el C=C3=B3digo = Tributario, cuando tipifica el incumplimiento doloso de sus obligaciones co= mo supuesto aut=C3=B3nomo de ge= neraci=C3=B3n de responsabilidad por il=C3=ADcitos tributarios.<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">312= <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">La redacci=C3=B3n de la norma, sin embargo, es m=C3=A1ximamente con= fusa. Si bien es claro que el C=C3=B3digo </p= >Tributario est=C3=A1 regulando =C3=BAnic= amente un supuesto de responsabilidad sancionadora y no tributaria,<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >313 no resulta = claro determinar a cu=C3=A1les obligaciones se refiere como elemento materi= al del i= ncumplimiento: si las propias del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico vinculadas al = cumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias, independientemente de que estas se ha= yan cumplido o no, o a las obligaciones tributarias del tercero a quien el profesional o t=C3=A9cnico pres= ta servicios.314 El desconcierto se maximiza cuan= do, adic= ionalmente, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario prescribe que la declaraci=C3=B3n de = esta responsabilidad se har=C3=A1 siempre en sede penal, lo que pudiera leerse como una = remisi=C3=B3n a la tipificaci=C3=B3n de la estafa mediante informaciones contables,= cuyo n=C3=BAcleo rector es la tergiversaci=C3=B3n de la informaci=C3=B3n c= ontable con el =C3=A1nimo de defraudar al Estado.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 315 Sin embargo, como es f=C3=A1cil constatar: (i) el =C3= =A1mbito de aplicaci=C3=B3n del 309 </spa= n>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 82. <= /span>310 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.1. </p= >311 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.3. 312 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 95. = 313 Al respecto, ver sentencia de la C= orte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 8 de febrero de 1994, (Instituto= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Guatemalteco de Contadores P=C3=BAblicos, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucio= nalidad parcial contra el art=C3=ADculo 42 del Acuerdo </= span>Gubernativo 624-9= 2, de Reglamento de la Ley de Impuesto sobre la Renta, Expediente 231-93), = p. 5. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/791746.231-93.pdf. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">314 Si bien, intuitivamente, la respuest= a pareciera ser la primera de estas opciones, siempre que ellas hayan deter= minado el incumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria principal. </spa= n> 315 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADc= ulo 271. As=C3=AD se tipifica como delito aut=C3=B3nomo la participaci=C3= =B3n del auditor, perito contador o experto en un esquema de defraudaci=C3= =B3n tributaria, en los casos en los que la informaci=C3=B3n sirve de base = para la comisi=C3=B3n de ese delito. En estos casos, la regla de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">consunci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >falsa concurrencia de delitos=E2=80=93 demanda que el = tipo aplicable al profesional involucrado sea el del delito m=C3=A1s grave= , defraudaci=C3=B3n, del que =C3=A9l es =C3=BAnicamente part=C3=ADcipe, no = autor. De lo 68 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1l= LEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />tipo en cuesti=C3=B3n es m=C3=A1s limitado qu= e el de la declaraci=C3=B3n de responsabilidad contenida en el C=C3=B3digo = = Tributar= io, que subjetivamente no est=C3=A1 circunscrita =C3=BAnicamente a auditore= s, peritos contables o expertos y que, por lo general de su = enunciado, parece incluir tambi=C3=A9n a abogados que emiten dict=C3=A1menes </s= pan> </s= pan>profesionales para determinar la g= ravabilidad o no de un determinado enriquecimiento con el ISLR, o <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>bien la deducibil= idad de alguna partida de costo o de gasto para la determinaci=C3=B3n de la= renta neta gravable con este impuesto; y (ii) en el caso de este delito, las regla= s de autor=C3=ADa ya contenidas en el C=C3=B3digo Penal316 son suficientes para determinar el grado= de responsabilidad del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico, sin necesidad de remisi=C3=B3n alguna al C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, m=C3=A1xime cuando se tiene presente que la estafa <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">mediante informacione= s contables no es un delito tributario. As= =C3=AD las cosas, y =E2=80=93por supuesto=E2=80=93 s= alvo mejor opini=C3=B3n, pareciera que la =C3=BAnica forma de conciliar la = declarac= i=C3=B3n normativa con el resto del sistema sancionador guatemalteco, cuest= i=C3=B3n de suma <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">importancia para determinar la responsabilidad sancionadora de pro= fesionales y t=C3=A9cnicos en general a = efectos, no solo = del ISLR, sino de todo el sistema tributario, es considerar que la regla en= comentarios atribuye responsabilidad sancionadora, como part=C3=ADcipes<sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">, a todos aquellos profesionales o t=C3=A9cnicos que, dolosamente, hayan incumplido con sus obligaciones y que, como consecuenci= a de ello, se haya producido un delito tributario. Sin embar= go, teniendo en cuenta que ninguno de los delitos tributarios tipificados en el C= =C3=B3digo Penal prev=C3=A9 la inhabilitaci=C3=B3n para el ejercicio de pro= fesiones como pena accesoria,</= span>317 no parece haber justificaci=C3=B3n que explique= el porqu=C3=A9 de la separaci=C3=B3n de esta regla de las normas generales de auto= r=C3=ADa y participaci=C3=B3n en il=C3=ADcitos tributarios, tanto infraccio= nales como delictuales. En este= sentido, cualquier interpretaci=C3=B3n que a=C3=B1ada a la responsabilidad= determinada por <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">este art=C3=ADculo las sanciones aplicables a los autores <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">lato sensu, tal como han sido definidos en el C=C3=B3digo = = Tributario, vulnerar=C3=ADa sin m=C3= =A1s la prohibici=C3=B3n sustantiva del bis in =C3= =ADdem,318 al pretender el doble castigo del mismo hecho sin qu= e exista pluriofensividad que lo justifique. = 3.1.5.3. Excepciones. Responsab= ilidad sancionadora por el hecho de terceros. Adem=C3=A1s de la personalidad como regla general,= el C=C3=B3digo Tributario permite la consagraci=C3=B3n de =C2=ABexcepciones=C2=BB,= 319 que fundamentalmente reproducen el esquema de responsabilidad </span= >vicaria por el hech= o de terceros, propio de la responsabilidad civil.320 <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">A este respecto, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario distingue = contrari= o, se producir=C3=ADa un adelantamiento de la punibilidad de la defraudaci= =C3=B3n, incompatible con las garant=C3=ADas m=C3=ADnimas en = 0;el ejercicio = del poder punitivo en un Estado democr=C3=A1tico. </= p>316 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 36.1. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 317 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Penal, art=C3=ADculo 42. La pena accesoria de inhabilitaci=C3=B3n, sea ab= soluta o especial, por su naturaleza = ;exige que el e= ncargado de aplicarla sea el juez penal. 318 </sp= an>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 319 GUATEMA= LA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 77. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">32= 0 Seg=C3=BAn el C=C3=B3digo Civil de Guatemala, e= stos son los casos de la responsabilidad: (i) del patrono por los accidente= s de trabajo (art=C3=ADculo 1.649) (ii) del due=C3=B1o de medios de transp= orte por los da=C3=B1os causados por accidentes de tr=C3=A1nsito (art=C3=AD= culo 1.651); (iii) los padres, tutores o guardadores en el caso de da=C3= =B1os causados por menores de edad e incapaces, salvo el caso &#x= a0;en el que los menores de edad que sean mayores de 15 a=C3=B1os y= los incapaces hayan actuado con lucidez (art=C3=ADculo 1.660); (iv) </span= > el director de ense=C3=B1anza o el jefe de taller, por lo= s da=C3=B1os causados por sus alumnos o aprendices menores de 15 a=C3=B1os = bajo su guarda (art=C3=ADculo 1.661); (v) del principal por los hechos il= =C3=ADcitos de sus dependientes en actos de servicio (art=C3=ADculo 1.663);= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">(vi) las personas jur=C3=ADdicas, por los hechos de sus representantes en= ejercicio de sus funciones (art=C3=ADculo 1.664); (vii) el Estado <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> y los M= unicipios, por los da=C3=B1os causados por sus funcionarios (art=C3=ADculo = 1.665); (viii) el due=C3=B1o o cuidador de animales por </= span>los da=C3=B1os ca= usados por =C3=A9stos (art=C3=ADculo 1.669); (ix) el due=C3=B1o de edificio= s, por el da=C3=B1o causado por su ruina (art=C3=ADculo 1.671); <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;69 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJzt1rEJAgEQAMEVNFCwk7f/Rj7+DuzBHkyOg5kKNtwCAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWu00HLPGuPtVjOo= T1vtU5HQHAbvfpgCVe1VE9p0NY78rAAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAMC/fokxA/ckSVscAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" = alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />dos casos de resp= onsabilidad indirecta: (i) la del mandante por las conductas de sus mandata= rios;321 y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">(ii) la del princ= ipal, por las infracciones tributarias de sus dependientes.322 </s= pan>A estos s= upuestos se agrega la responsab= ilidad penal de personas jur=C3=ADdicas,323 que =E2=80=93en lo b=C3=A1sico= =E2=80=93 </s= pan>reproduce= el sistema de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">responsabilidad = vicaria por atribuci=C3=B3n,324 que imputa responsabilidad a la persona = jur=C3=ADdica por el hecho de sus directores, gerentes, ejecutivos, representantes,= administradores, funcionarios o empleados con </spa= n>participaci=C3=B3n directa en el hec= ho, y sin cuya intervenci=C3=B3n no se hubiera realizado la conducta punibl= e, &#x= a0;as=C3= =AD como en los casos de defecto de organizaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93culpa in eligendo </= span>o </span= >in vigilando=E2=80=93 que haya permitido el </= span> incumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias por parte de lo= s =C3=B3rganos societarios encargados de dicha </spa= n>tarea, lo que= permite la traslaci=C3=B3n de la = consecuencia =E2=80=93la pena=E2=80=93 a la persona jur=C3=ADdica.325 </s= pan>Prima facie, el car=C3=A1cter vicario de la responsabilidad lesiona el car=C3=A1cter = personal de la imputaci=C3=B3n.326 Este <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= 0.05pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">no ser=C3=A1 problema si, por el contrario, la responsabilidad se atr= ibuye con base en la omisi=C3=B3n del deber <= /p>de cuidado que d= ebi=C3=B3 tener el mandante o el principal respecto de la elecci=C3=B3n, o = de las ejecutorias, del mandatario o dependiente.327 </span= >Las infraccion= es tributarias son conductas t=C3=ADpicas, antijur=C3=ADdicas y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">culpables<= /span>, lo qu= e demanda que todo tipo de resp= onsabilidad sancionadora parta siempre de un acto propio del responsable. E= sto no es otra <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">cosa que el principio de personalidad: la relaci=C3=B3n entre el ind= ividuo contra quien se dirige la consecuencia de lo il=C3=AD= cito y la sanci=C3=B3n siempre debe verificarse respecto del autor del acto= antijur=C3=ADdico. Para cumplir con este postulado, el acto= antijur=C3=ADdico que origina la responsabilidad sancionadora debe = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ser, necesariam= ente, el hecho del mandante o principal: es este quien omite el deber de cu= idado en la selecci=C3=B3n y la supervisi=C3=B3n del personal a su cargo, bajo los = l=C3=ADmites que impone la racionalidad y la = naturaleza comp= leja de las funciones asociadas al cumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tribu= taria. La cuesti=C3=B3n radica, entonces, en la <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">falta de tipicidad de esta conducta, toda vez que las soluciones norm= ativas guatemaltecas <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= como las de b= uena parte de Latinoam=C3=A9rica=E2=80=93 acuden a la traslaci= =C3=B3n de la responsabilidad por el hecho del otro, sin describir la omisi=C3=B3n = de cuidado en comentarios como el hecho del que directamente se deriva la responsa= bilidad. Ello, adem=C3=A1s de generar dudas razonables respecto de la </spa= n> </spa= n>correspondencia con la culpabilidad,= parece ser violatorio de la reserva legal.328 </s= pan>As=C3=AD las cosas, la regulaci=C3= =B3n penal guatemalteca329 solventa parcialmente = el problema al regular la responsabilidad de personas jur=C3=ADdicas, cuando </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>adem=C3=A1s de la regla general de traslaci=C3=B3n vicaria de= la responsabilidad por el hecho de directores, gerentes, ej= ecutivos, representantes, administradores, </= p>funcionarios o empleados=E2=80=93 <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">tipifica expresamente como supuestos de responsabilidad los derivados = del </sp= an>def= ecto de organizaci=C3=B3n de la empresa: (i) actos de los = representantes autorizados org=C3=A1nicamente por </= span>y (x) los propiet= arios, arrendatarios, poseedores y quien aproveche bienes, por los da=C3=B1= os de todo tipo que =C3=A9stos puedan causar (art=C3=ADculo 1.672). </sp= an> 321 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=AD= culo 81. 322 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= enal, art=C3=ADculo 83. 323 GUATEMALA, = C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 38. 324 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; letter-spacing:0.05pt">Vid. SILVA S=C3=81NCHEZ, Jes=C3=BAs Mar=C3=ADa (20= 08): =E2=80=9CLa evoluci=C3=B3n ideol=C3=B3gica de la discusi=C3=B3n sobre = la responsabilidad penal de las personas jur=C3=ADdicas=E2=80=9D, Derecho Pe= nal y Criminolog=C3=ADa, Vol. 29, No. 86-87, pp. 130-131. Disponi= ble en: https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/derpen/article/view/6= 20/585. 325 WEFFE (2018), p. 276. </spa= n> 326 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4. </= span>327 WEFFE (2018), p. 279. 328 <= /span>WEFFE (2018), pp. 284-285, y secciones 2.= 1 y 2.4. 329 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= enal, art=C3=ADculo 38. 70 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:68"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzlERQQEUQMHDGD8= CeAm10koKBfyKcd2xm2ALAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+xGk6sMS1ulfn6Qjrfar3dAKA3S7TgSWO6lHdpiOs96qe0wkAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4I98AV6XBAAEL0Q2AAAAAElFTkSuQmC= C" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></sp= an>la persona jur=C3=ADdica; (ii) la culpa in eligendo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o in vigilando= en la gesti=C3=B3n de la empresa, y como consecuencia </s= pan> esta obtiene un provecho econ=C3=B3mico; (iii) hechos punibles = directamente ordenados y ejecutados por = la persona jur=C3=ADdica, a trav=C3=A9s = de su organizaci=C3=B3n interna. Todo ello maximiza la necesidad de program= as &#x= a0;de cumplimiento tributario, = de los que los socios y administradores de empresas puedan obtener la </spa= n> </spa= n>certeza de la= conformidad de la actuaci=C3=B3n tributaria de la empresa con los est=C3= =A1ndares m=C3=ADnimos normativos y =C3=A9ticos de funcionamiento, para evitar sanc= iones.330 3.1.5.4. Circ= unstancias eximentes de responsabilidad penal tributaria. La extra=C3=B1a ausencia del error exc= usable como causa de inculpabilidad. </span= >La responsabilidad sancionadora surge= de la relaci=C3=B3n entre la conducta antijur=C3=ADdica y su autor = consciente y libre, eso ya se ha dicho.331 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">A contrario= , ello= explica que no exista responsabilidad cuando, por alguna raz=C3=B3n, el sujeto est=C3=A1 privado de la co= nsciencia o de la libertad en sus actos. En tales condiciones, lo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>hecho no puede ser calificado como </spa= n>cond= ucta, = pues ello no deriva de la voluntad humana, y =E2=80=93er= go=E2= =80=93 no cumple con el requisito m=C3=ADnimo de relevancia del ha= cer relevante en Derecho Sancionador. Antes que t=C3=ADpico, antijur=C3=ADdico y cu= lpable, el il=C3=ADcito es conducta humana: esta, se insi= ste, requiere una direcci=C3=B3n consciente y libre de la vo= luntad hacia la realizaci=C3=B3n de un fin.332 Como puede verse, las si= tuaciones descritas son suscept= ibles de excluir el car=C3=A1cter de conducta de un determinado obrar humano, po= r lo &= #xa0;que son denominadas por = la doctrina causas de ausencia de acci=C3=B3n.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">33= 3 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Tambi=C3=A9n h= ay casos en los que, contrario a la regla general, un acto consciente y lib= re dirigido a lesionar o poner = en peligro un bien jur=C3=ADdico no es castigado. Resumid= amente, ello puede deberse a que el bien = jur=C3=ADdico protegido por la norma pen= al entra en conflicto con otro bien jur=C3=ADdico, defendido por el = = =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB en una situaci= =C3=B3n concreta, lo que debe ser resuelto por el Derecho a trav=C3=A9s de = la &#x= a0;ponderaci=C3=B3n</spa= n>334. Por una parte, si el bien jur=C3=ADdico del =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB es de = mayor valor que el protegido por la norma penal, entonces aquel estar=C3=A1 justif= icado, actuando seg=C3=BAn el Derecho, y obviamente no pue= de ser c= astigado: estaremos en presencia de una causa de j= ustificaci=C3=B3n335. Por la= otra, en algunas de estas situaciones el =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB carece de l= a capacidad de entender y de querer 330 Vid. BLANCO P= =C3=89REZ, Alicia (2017): Corporate Compliance: Especial R= eferencia al Compliance Tributario, Memoria de prueba <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;para obt= ar al grado en Derecho de la Universidad de Salamanca, pp. 34-41. Disponibl= e en: https://gredos.usal.es/jspui/bitstream/10366/136864/1/TFG_BLANCO_P%C= 3%89REZ_Alicia.pdf 331 Ver secciones 2 y 3.1.5. </sp= an>332 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4; WELZEL (1956), pp. 35-36. = 333 </p= >Vid. DE LE=C3=93N VELASC= O, H=C3=A9ctor An=C3=ADbal (2000): =E2=80=9CLa acci=C3=B3n y la o= misi=C3=B3n como primer elemento del delito=E2=80=9D, en </= span>D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL= =C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis y GIM=C3=89NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.),= Manual de Derecho Penal </p= >Guatemalteco. Par= te General (Ciudad de Guatemala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa= =C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial= ), p. 155. <= /span>334 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 335= Son causas de justificaci=C3=B3n la leg=C3=ADtim= a defensa, el estado de necesidad justificado y el ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo = del Derecho, seg=C3=BAn el art=C3=ADculo 24 del C= =C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala. Es tambi=C3=A9n, el caso del consentimiento = del ofendido, en casos muy </= p>particulares de bienes j= ur=C3=ADdicos disponibles y el consentimiento no excluya la tipicidad de la= conducta. En espec=C3=ADfico, son causas de justificaci=C3=B3n del da=C3= =B1o consciente y voluntario realizado en el contexto de la pr=C3=A1ctica d= eportiva, siempre que el autor haya seguido los reg= lamentos deportivos y, evidentemente, no haya tenido voluntad de causar el = da=C3=B1o punible, seg=C3=BAn </span= >el art=C3=ADculo 153 = del C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala; y la exceptio veritatis en el caso de la injuria, ex art=C3=ADculo 160 del C=C3=B3digo Penal </= span>de Guatemala. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; let= ter-spacing:0.05pt">71 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,= iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFl= zAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB8ZJREFUeJztw0ENACAMALFThW90TQSI4EfapAUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQLWqqY4+3gEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOACjL2SQn54w2YAAAAASUVORK5= CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />el a= cto il=C3=ADcito o su resultado, lo que demuestra su falta de aptitud para ser sujeto de la conminaci=C3=B3n sancionadora: estos son los cas= os de inimputabilidad, o de falta de capacidad de Derecho= Sancionador.336 Del mismo modo, si el bien jur=C3=ADdico d= el infractor es de igual o menor valor que el protegido por la <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> norma penal, habr=C3= =A1 que hacer un doble examen. En primer lugar, es necesario determinar si = el &#x= a0;=C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB, a pes= ar de haber dirigido conscientemente su voluntad a la realizaci=C3=B3n de l= a conducta, estaba consciente o= no de su car=C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico, de su capacida= d para da=C3=B1ar o poner en peligro concreto </span= >al bien jur=C3=ADdico de que se trate= . En segundo lugar, en el supuesto que se establezca que el =C2=ABinfractor= =C2=BB ten=C3=ADa conciencia de la antijuridicidad de la conducta= ,337 es preciso evaluar las circunstancias del ob= rar del = =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB, para de all=C3=AD determinar si este tuvo la posibil= idad racional de adaptar su conducta a la advertencia normativa. En todos estos casos, tanto en el caso de= ausencia de capacidad jur=C3=ADdico- sancionadora, como el supuesto en el que el= =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB no haya tenido v=C3=A1lidamente conciencia de la </s= pan> da=C3=B1osi= dad de su conducta, como en el caso de que al =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB no le s= ea racionalmente exigible adaptar su conducta a la advertencia de la norma sanciona= dora, estaremos en presencia de causas de <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal"> inc= ulpabilidad.338 A pesar de todo lo expuesto, plenamente aplicable= a la exclusi=C3=B3n de la responsabilidad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, el= C=C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala establece =C3=BAnicamente como circuns= tancias = que excluyen la responsabilidad por il=C3=ADcitos tributarios dos causales,= ambas de inculpabilidad: la </spa= n>incapacidad l= egal y absoluta y el caso fortuito y la fuerza mayor.339 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">La primera atie= nde a las denominadas causas de inimputabilidad: aquellas circunstancias que privan tota= lmente al sujeto de la conciencia o de la libertad en sus actos,340 </spa= n>situaci=C3=B3n que, de acuerdo con la caracterizaci=C3=B3n lega= l, debe ser legal y absoluta. La segunda se ref= iere a supuestos de no exigibilidad de otra conducta, supuestos en los <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>que al contribuye= nte o responsable no se le pod=C3=ADa exigir razonablemente una conducta distint= a que la del <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">incumplimiento de = la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria material o formal. El caso fortuito entra=C3= =B1a la imposibilidad material de realizaci=C3=B3n de la conducta exigida por la no= rma tributaria, que ha de determinar la = imposibilidad de actuar de otra forma no= solo para =C3=A9l, sino para cualquier otro sujeto que se hubiera <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>encontrado en las mismas circunstancias= . La fuerza mayor supone el ejercicio de una coacci=C3=B3n sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >la voluntad del c= ontribuyente o responsable, venci=C3=A9ndola, e impulsando la realizaci=C3= =B3n de una conducta no deseada por el sujeto pasivo tributa= rio.341 Sin embargo, como f=C3=A1cilmente puede notarse, el= C=C3=B3digo Tributario omite toda regulaci=C3=B3n sobre las causas de ausen= cia de acci=C3=B3n,342 las caus= as de justificaci=C3=B3n343 y, particularmente no= table, sobre el error como causa de inculpabilidad, situaci=C3=B3n que, respetuosamente= , consideramos una deficiencia del sistema sancionador tributario guatemalteco. 336 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">WE= FFE (2018), p. 304. 337 WEFFE (2018), p= . 310. 338 Vid. WEFFE (2018), p. 312. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">339 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, a= rt=C3=ADculo 78. 340 WEFFE (2010), pp. = 304-306. 341 WEFFE (2018), p. 312. </= span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">342 </spa= n>A saber: actos inter= nos, movimientos reflejos y estados de inconsciencia, como el sonambulismo.= DE LE=C3=93N VELASCO (2000), p. 157. 343 </sp= an>A saber, en general: leg=C3=ADtima defensa, estado de necesidad, cump= limiento del deber, ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo del derecho. Vid. &#x= a0;ENR=C3=8D</s= pan>QUEZ COJULUN, Carlos Roberto (2000): =E2=80=9CEl delito como acci=C3= =B3n antijur=C3=ADdica=E2=80=9D, en D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL=C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">y GIM=C3=89NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.), Manu= al de Derecho Penal Guatemalteco. Parte General (Ciudad de </span= > Guate= mala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa=C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 = Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial), p. 257. </p= >72= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+xJREFUeJzt1sEJwlAUAMEN3tKCN8uywrTkyR6sIC0YCDw+zFSwxy0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAACAG2zTAYt4Vu9qnw5heZ/qmI4AYG0G7j979aoe0yEs71d9pyMAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AADgkhO7GgQDRFXfPAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Particularmente releva= nte es la ausencia de reconocimiento del error como eximente de <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> responsabilidad por= il=C3=ADcitos tributarios, sobre todo por su alta incidencia en una materi= a tan compleja <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">y cambiante como lo es la tributaria. En t=C3=A9rminos generales, el= error es una anomal=C3=ADa del juicio sobre = un objeto y sus caracter=C3=ADsticas, = sea porque el sujeto ignora =E2=80=93falta absoluta de conoci= miento= =E2=80=93 o porque su conocimiento es defe= ctuoso= , sea por incompleto o por falso.344 En el ISLR, esta anormalidad cognit= iva &#= xa0;recae sobre el <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">deber de tributar,345 sea de forma: 1. Absoluta, por la impresi=C3=B3n err=C3= =B3nea de que una renta no se ha producido, como por ejemplo ser=C3=ADa <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>el caso de la di= vergencia interpretativa entre contribuyente y Administraci=C3=B3n Tributar= ia respe= cto del car=C3=A1cter devengado o percibido de una determinada renta, de acuerdo= con los principios contables d= e general aceptaci=C3=B3n,346 o bien respecto del car=C3=A1cter </span= >terri= torial de una determinada renta y, en consecuencia, de su gravab= ilidad con el ISLR en Guatemala,347 o2= . Relativa, por la impresi=C3=B3n err=C3=B3nea de que una= determinada renta es gravable bajo un r=C3=A9gimen = diferente, m=C3=A1s benigno que= el que le es realmente aplicable. Este riesgo es particularmente <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>notable en sistem= as cedulares como el guatemalteco, donde la base imponible348 </sp= an>es dividida en compartimientos estancos, o =C2= =ABc=C3=A9dulas=C2=BB, para determinar la renta gravable y el impuesto a pa= gar separadamente.349 As=C3=AD, un ejemplo sencillo de e= ste tipo de error lo constituye la calificaci=C3=B3n de una determinada renta, frutos civiles derivados d= el uso del dinero =E2=80=93y en consecuencia, subsumible en principio como re= nta de capital=E2=80=93350, com= o renta derivada del ejercicio de las =C2=ABotras=C2=BB &= #xa0;a= ctividades lucrativas a las que se refiere la definici=C3=B3n de la base im= ponible351 en el caso del ISLR aplicable a las actividades lucrativas.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3= 52 = Como puede ve= rse, la anomal=C3=ADa del juicio que el contribuyente o responsable realiza= sobre la existencia o no de la= obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria por concepto de ISLR, la que = =E2=80=93en =C3=BAltima instancia=E2=80=93 determina la comisi=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito, deriva de una interpretaci=C3=B3n = incorrecta de la normativa contentiva de derechos y 344 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >WEFFE (2018), p. 306-307. 345 Adem=C3= =A1s de la posibilidad que se analiza en el texto principal, que es la que = ordinariamente dar=C3=A1 lugar al error excusable </= p>como causa de inculpabil= idad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, cabe la posibilidad de error </s= pan>de prohibici=C3=B3n sobre el </span= >incumplimiento </span= >=E2=80=93ya no excusable, sino = atenuado=E2=80=93 del deber de tributar por l= a irracionalidad en el gasto p=C3=BAblico por parte = del Estado. Hay que de= jar a salvo, sin embargo, el supuesto en que se demuestre fehacientemente l= a utilizaci=C3=B3n de la recaudaci=C3=B3n fiscal por el Estado para la con= secuci=C3=B3n de fines il=C3=ADcitos, caso en el cual estaremos frente a un= a clara causa de justificaci=C3=B3n, antes que de inculpabilid= ad. WEFFE (2018), p. 311. 346 Ello pod= r=C3=ADa ocurrir, por ejemplo, en el caso de obligaciones sometidas a condi= ci=C3=B3n o t=C3=A9rmino, en aplicaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;52 de la Le= y de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria de Guatemala. Seg=C3=BAn la norma, el el= emento temporal del hecho generador en el ISLR guatemalteco para las renta= s de las actividades lucrativas =E2=80=9Cse enti= ende por sistema contable de lo devengado, el sistema contable <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt"> consistente en registrar los ingresos o los costos y gastos en el moment= o en que nacen como derechos u obligaciones y no cuando se hacen efectivos<= /span>=E2=80=9D. Sobre la temporalidad= del hecho generador en el ISLR, ver WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2017): =E2=80=9CP= rincipios de la imposici=C3=B3n vs. temporalidad del hecho imponible en el= impuesto sobre la renta. Notas sobre el (nuevo) r=C3=A9gimen de disponibil= idad de ingresos, costos y gastos=E2=80=9D, Revista de la Facultad de Derecho, No. 71= (Caracas, UCAB), pp. 151-188. Disponible en: <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">https://weffe.net/weffe/inde= x.php/component/k2/item/404-principios-de-la-imposicion-vs-temporalidad-del= -hecho- imponible-en-el-impuesto-sobre-la-renta-notas-sobre-el-nuevo-regim= en-de-disponibilidad-de-ingresos-costos-y-gastos </p= >347 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 4. 348 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci= =C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 1. 349 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">El art=C3=ADculo 2 de la Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria divide la r= enta gravable con el ISLR en Guatemala en tres categor=C3=ADas: <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;(i) las = rentas de las actividades lucrativas; (ii) las rentas del trabajo; (iii) la= s rentas del capital y las ganancias de capital. </p= >350 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 88. 351 &#= xa0;Excluyendo,= claro est=C3=A1, los casos que han sido regulados expresamente a este obje= to en el art=C3=ADculo 15 de la Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria de = Guatemala. 352 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actual= izaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 20. 73 </span= > <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAA= AMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFU= eJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HW= O+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5N= nbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positi= on:absolute" />obligaciones dentro de la relaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdico-tributaria. = Como ha sostenido con acierto la doctrina: =E2=80=9CSe debe tener en cuenta,= en primer lugar, la multiplicidad, variabilidad e inestabilidad de las ley= es tributarias que se traduce en una complejidad atentatoria del prin= cipio de certeza y que justifica en no pocos casos la confusi=C3=B3n = y el equ=C3=ADvoco del contribuyente, lo cual se producir=C3=A1 inevitablem= ente mientras no exista =E2=80=98una mayor idoneidad en las expresion= es de la ley fiscal que desprovistas del agudo tecnicismo lleven a l= a conciencia del pueblo al estado de certeza=E2=80=99, de tal suerte que </= span> =E2=80=98exterioricen con precisi=C3=B3n y no complejamente el modo de = conducta fijado a una persona dada.=E2=80=9D353 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 7pt"> En este sentido, cuando la normativa que regula la actividad humana, cuy= o incumplimiento est=C3=A1 sometido a castigo =E2=80=93como es el caso del Derecho Tributario</= span>=E2=80= =93 es sumamente complicada, de dif=C3=ADcil comprensi=C3=B3n y cu= ya cambiante realidad impone a las personas sujetas a su imperio una agobia= nte =E2=80=93y </s= pan>nunca completa=E2=80=93 labor de actualizaci= =C3=B3n, para seguirle la pista a los deberes impuestos = por la norma fiscal. =C2=BFHasta qu=C3=A9 punto puede hablarse de =E2=80=9Cconocimi= ento de la ilicitud=E2=80=9D que fundamente el dolo necesario para el reproche sancionador tributario? Tal como se=C3=B1ala la doctrina= , el incorrecto conocimiento de los preceptos tributarios r= elevantes para la existencia de una concreta infracci=C3=B3n en cuanto afec= tar=C3=ADa al tipo mismo del il=C3=ADcito, debe ser tomado en consideraci=C3=B3n para a= plicarse en materia de infracciones tributarias.354 </span= >Ahora, si bien ninguna de estas circu= nstancias es tomada en cuenta por el C=C3=B3digo Tributario a la hora </spa= n> </spa= n>de la determinaci=C3=B3n de la comis= i=C3=B3n o no de un il=C3=ADcito tributario, omisi=C3=B3n tanto m=C3=A1s gr= ave cuanto de <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">ella depende =E2=80=93en una medida muy importante<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </sp= an>la = proporcionalidad del sistema sancionador tributario,<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">355= <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ello no debe in= terpretarse como imposibilidad de invocar causas de jus= tificaci=C3=B3n o de culpabilidad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, especialme= nte en el campo de aplicaci=C3=B3n del impuesto m=C3=A1s &= #xa0;importante356 <= /span>y complejo357 de todo sistema tributario como lo es el= ISLR. L= a respuesta =E2=80=93parcial=E2=80=93 al problema se halla en la declaraci= =C3=B3n general contenida en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, de = 0;acuerd= o con la cual este es fondo general supletorio de todas l= as materias de naturaleza penal, reguladas </= p>por otras leyes, en cuanto estas, impl= =C3=ADcita o expresamente, no dispusieren lo contrario.358 </spa= n>Ello permit= e = 0;la apl= icaci=C3=B3n de las causas de justificaci=C3=B3n ge= n=C3=A9ricas establecidas en ese C=C3=B3digo, entre las cu= ales destacan el ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo de un derecho y la = posibilidad general de causas supralegales de justificaci=C3=B3n, como </sp= an> f=C3=B3rmula= s de ponderaci=C3=B3n aplicables casu=C3=ADsticamente para aquellos casos d= e ausencia de lesi=C3=B3n efectiva o potencial al bien jur=C3=ADdico derivada de la realizaci=C3=B3n de un= a conducta en principio t=C3=ADpica.359 = Por su parte, la = ausencia de regulaci=C3=B3n expresa del error, tanto de t= ipo como de prohibici=C3=B3n,360 como causa de inculpabilidad en el Derecho Pena= l guatemalteco no significa la imposibilidad de exigir su = 353 VILLEGAS, H=C3=A9ctor B. (1998): <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">R=C3=A9gimen penal tributario argentino, (Buenos Aires, Edi= ciones Depalma), pp. 136-137. 354 ZORNO= ZA P=C3=89REZ, Juan Jos=C3=A9 (1992): El sistema de infrac= ciones y sanciones tributarias (Los principios constitucionales del Derecho= sancionador, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 88; = WEFFE (2018), p. 310. 355 Ver secci= =C3=B3n 2.2. 356 Ver secci=C3=B3n 1. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">357 Famosa es la expresi=C3=B3n de A</spa= n>LBERT EINSTEIN, se= g=C3=BAn la cual =E2=80=9Clo m=C3=A1s dif=C3=ADcil de ente= nder en el mundo es el impuesto sobre la renta=E2=80=9D. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 358 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 9. 359 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, a= rt=C3=ADculo 24. Al respecto, ver ENR=C3=8DQUEZ COJULUN (2000), p. 257; y W= EFFE (2010), pp. 305-339. 360 Sobre la= distinci=C3=B3n entre error de tipo y error de prohibici=C3=B3n, y su apli= caci=C3=B3n al Derecho Sancionador Tributario, ver <= /p>WEFFE (2018), pp. 310-3= 11. 74 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;= base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAA= AAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJzt1rEJAgEQAMEVNFCwk7f/Rj7+DuzBHkyOg5k= KNtwCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWu0= 0HLPGuPtVjOoT1vtU5HQHAbvfpgCVe1VE9p0NY78rAAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMC/fokxA/ckSVscAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" hei= ght=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />aplicaci=C3=B3n a todos los = =C3=A1mbitos del Derecho Sancionador, incluyendo al Derecho Tributario:</sp= an>361 su aplicaci=C3=B3n es un imperativ= o de la dignidad humana,362 fundamental a todo el si= stema jur=C3=ADdico y reconocida constitucionalmente.363 </= span>3.1.5.5. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Causas de extinc= i=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n sancionadora tributaria &#= xa0;y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n tributaria. El derecho del Estado= para ejercer el ius puniendi no es eterno. Como todo derecho subjetivo estatal,= = ;el </sp= an>ius= puniendi est=C3=A1 naturalmente sometido a limitaciones.<= /span>364 Adem=C3=A1s de otros confines, los criterios d= e idonei= dad y necesidad, bajo la forma de la subsidiariedad de la intervenci=C3=B3n= punitiva,365 al igual que la culpabilidad, bajo la forma de la personalidad,366 determinan l=C3=ADm= ites materiales y temporales al ejercicio del poder sancionador, de manera que (i) el Estad= o ya no pueda perseguir al infractor para imponerle la sanci=C3=B3n; y (ii) el Estado, una vez impuesta la= sanci=C3=B3n, la ejecute o contin=C3=BAe ejecut=C3=A1ndola. En el <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Derecho Sancionador, estas circunstanci= as son conocidas como causas para la extinci=C3=B3n de la= pretensi=C3=B3n estatal de imponer la sanci=C3=B3n en el ca= so de infracciones al ordenamiento tributario =E2=80=93 </= span> extinci=C3= =B3n de la acci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93, o de la decadencia de la posibi= lidad jur=C3=ADdica de ejecutar la sanci=C3=B3n previamente impuesta, extinci=C3=B3= n de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n. De acuerdo con la enumeraci=C3=B3n legal= ,367 las infracciones y sanciones tributarias en = Guatemala se extinguen por la muerte del infractor, la exoneraci=C3=B3n o condonaci= =C3=B3n, la declaratoria de inc= obrabilidad368 y la prescripci=C3=B3n. Sobran los comentarios respecto de la pri= mera de las causas de extinci=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n penal mencionadas. La muerte= =E2=80=93cesaci=C3=B3n definitiva de las funciones vitales de u= na persona=E2=80=93 extingue la personalidad, no s=C3=B3lo f=C3=ADsica sino jur=C3=ADdica del <= /span>de cuius. As=C3=AD, siendo que la responsabilidad por il= =C3=ADcitos tributarios es eminentemente personal,369 l= a responsabilidad por la comisi=C3=B3n de il=C3=ADcitos tributarios = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">resulta = intransferible, con independencia del car= =C3=A1cter pecuniario de la sanci=C3=B3n que eventualmente haya <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> sido impuesta. Como con acierto lo regula el C=C3=B3digo Penal, la muer= te extingue la pena pecuniaria impuesta pendiente de satisfacer, y todas las cons= ecuencias penales de la misma.370 Igualmente, poco hay que = decir respecto de la amnist=C3=ADa como medio de extinci=C3=B3n de la acci= =C3=B3n sancionadora tributaria y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la= s sanciones tributarias. La amnist=C3=ADa =E2=80=93denominada po= r el C= =C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala =C2=ABexoneraci=C3=B3n=C2=BB o =C2=ABcon= donaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB=E2=80=93, consiste en la renuncia estatal al= castigo de la infracci=C3=B3n o del delito, fundamentalment= e por causas de pol=C3=ADtica criminal, en ejercicio del &= #xa0;361 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Vid. RODR=C3=8DGUEZ BARILLAS= , Alejandro (2000): =E2=80=9CEl tipo subjetivo de los delitos de acci=C3=B3= n dolosos=E2=80=9D, en D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL=C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis y GIM=C3=89= NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.), Manual de Derecho= Penal Guatemalteco. Parte General (Ciudad de Guat= emala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa=C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 </span= >Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial), p. 207. </= p>362 Ver secciones 1 y 2. 363 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt"> GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo= 2. As=C3=AD lo defiende, en opini=C3=B3n con la que concordamos plenamente= , = RODR=C3=8DGUEZ BARILLAS (2000), p. 208. 364 </= span>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2. 365 Ver sec= ciones 2.2.1 y 2.2.2. 366 Ver secci= =C3=B3n 2.4. 367 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo= Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 75. 368 GUAT= EMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 55. </p= >369 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.1. 370 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 103. </= span>75 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= ABgk2s6sMRTfdU9HWG9v3qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMOLqUCAkIWonEAAAAASUVORK= 5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />den= ominado principio de oportunidad, corolario de la necesidad =E2=80=93m=C3=ADnima intervenc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 en materia = sancionadora.</sp= an>371 Su efecto es el de extinguir por completo la sanc= i=C3=B3n y todos sus efectos, de acuerdo = con la dicci=C3= =B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal.372 Es particularment= e importante se=C3=B1alar que la amnist=C3=ADa debe cumplir = con las formalidades propias del acto legislativo; en pocas palabras, la am= nist=C3=ADa debe ser otorgada por ley formal emanada del Pod= er Legislativo, e igualmente la amnist=C3=ADa debe versar sobre hechos pasa= dos y co= ncretos, determinando con toda precisi=C3=B3n el alcance objetivo y subjeti= vo de sus efectos. Obvio es decir que, si la ley que decreta una =C2=ABamnist=C3=AD= a=C2=BB extiende sus efectos hacia hechos futuros, no pod= r=C3=A1 hablarse de amnist=C3=ADa, sino de una ley penal gen= eral que despenaliza el hecho all=C3=AD descrito. La declaratoria de incobrabilidad es, = tambi=C3=A9n, una forma de ejercicio del principio de oportunidad en </span= > <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">materia sancionadora.373 Dada la naturaleza econ=C3=B3mica del = bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de protecci=C3=B3n en el Derecho Tributario, la i= rrelevancia del inter=C3=A9s econ=C3=B3mico comprometido en el cumplimiento de </= span> </= span>una determ= inada obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, en raz=C3=B3n de su cuant=C3=ADa, impone = el cese de la persecuci=C3=B3n sancionadora, fundamentalmente por motivos de econ= om=C3=ADa. Desde el punto de vista financiero, no tiene sentido que el Estado dedique ingentes recursos a = la persecuci=C3=B3n de hechos il=C3=ADcitos que, por su insignificancia, representan una carga econ=C3=B3= mica para el Estado mayor que el efecto resocializador o de mayor eficiencia del si= stema tributario que pudiera derivar de su cumplimiento. Por otra parte, en= la medi= da en la que el Derecho Sancionador est=C3=A1 consagrado a la protecci=C3= =B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos, la necesidad impone que la sanci=C3=B3n se aplique = solo cuando ella puede lograr eficazmente sus cometidos, lo que no es el caso en es= tos aut=C3=A9nticos il=C3=ADcitos bagatela. Otro tanto debe predicarse de aquell= os casos en los que, independie= ntemente de su cuant=C3=ADa, la sanci=C3=B3n pecuniaria tributaria sea de <= /span>= imposible cumplimiento: = cuando el infractor ha sido declarado en quiebra o sea de imposib= le ubicaci=C3=B3n, y no existan bienes o = derechos sobre los cuales pueda hacerse = efectiva la deuda tributaria. F= inalmente, como se=C3=B1ala la doctrina, =E2=80=9C[E]l transcurso del tiempo= , por voluntad de la ley, tiene tambi=C3=A9n como consecuencia la extinci= =C3=B3n de la responsabilidad penal. Se trat= a de una necesidad social fundada en la realidad de las cosas, <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = lo que aconseja poner un t=C3=A9rmino a la persecuci=C3=B3= n penal, considerando extinguido el delito o la &#x= a0;pena. El tiempo realiza su labor y, en definitiva, impone a la sociedad s= us condiciones. Se trata, pues, de exigencias pr=C3=A1cticas de una p= arte, y del olvido del hecho y de sus consecuencias, de la otra, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> </s= pan>lo que hace desaparecer la = necesidad del castigo que se muestra ya como inoportuno e innecesario, </sp= an>&#x= a0;m=C3=A1xime cuando ha= desaparecido la conmoci=C3=B3n social por el impacto ocasionado por la rup= tura del <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'VCQGHN+Garamond Italic'">equilibr= io =C3=A9tico a causa del delito.=E2=80=9D374 As=C3=AD, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario prev=C3=A9 la prescripci=C3=B3n como f= orma de extinci=C3=B3n, tanto de la acci=C3=B3n </sp= an>sancionadora tributaria como de la = sanci=C3=B3n fiscal, por la inactividad de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributari= a = 0;en la persecuci=C3=B3n y cast= igo de los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios en el transcurso de cinco a=C3=B1os, c= ontados a partir <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">del momento de comisi=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito =E2=80=93para la acci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 o quede firme la sanci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93para la ejecuci=C3=B3n= =E2=80=93</sp= an>, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>respectivamente.375 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&= #xa0;371 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2.= 2. 372 GUATEMAL= A, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 104. 373 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 55. = 374 ARTEAGA S=C3=81NCHEZ, Alberto (1998): Derecho Penal Venezolano, (Caracas, Editorial McGrawHill, oct= ava edici=C3=B3n), p. 308. </spa= n>375 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 76. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; let= ter-spacing:0.05pt">76 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,= iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFl= zAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB8ZJREFUeJztw0ENACAMALFThW90TQSI4EfapAUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQLWqqY4+3gEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOACjL2SQn54w2YAAAAASUVORK5= CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />En t=C3=A9rminos generales, la comisi=C3=B3n de il=C3=AD= citos de resultado, como lo son los il=C3=ADcitos sustant= ivos tri= butarios,376 viene dada por el momento de exigibi= lidad de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, material o formal, cuyo incumplimiento est= =C3=A1 castigado. As=C3=AD, por ejemplo, en el ISLR sobre actividades lucra= tivas, la consumaci=C3=B3n vend= r=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo para efectuar los pagos trimestra= les del = impuesto,377 o de la liquidaci=C3=B3n definitiva = del impuesto vencido el plazo de tres meses siguientes al = cierre del ejercicio,</s= pan>378 a t=C3=ADtulo de contribuyente. En el r=C3=A9gimen simplificado de ISLR sobre actividades lucrativas, = para el contribuyente la consumaci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo mensual para el pa= go del impuesto, en los casos en los que haya sido autorizado por la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para e= l pago directo de la obligaci=C3=B3n.379 Del mismo modo, la consumaci=C3=B3n de il=C3=ADcitos formales = respecto de la declaraci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo de l= os diez primeros d=C3=ADas del mes siguiente al de la emisi=C3=B3n de las f= acturas por el contribuyente para la presentaci=C3=B3n de la= declaraci=C3=B3n. En ese mismo supuesto, la consumaci=C3=B3n de <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios materiales vendr=C3=A1 dado por el venci= miento del plazo de diez d=C3=ADas del mes </= p>siguiente a aquel en que se emiti=C3=B3 = la constancia de retenci=C3=B3n, para enterar las retenciones practicadas <= /span> <= /span>seg=C3=BAn este r=C3=A9gimen.</s= pan>380 La falta de notificaci=C3=B3n del cambio de r=C3=A9gimen, de ordinario = a simplificado, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">estar=C3=A1 con= sumada al cierre del ejercicio previo a aquel en el que operar=C3=A1 dicho = cambio.381 En el caso del ISLR sobre el trabajo en relaci= =C3=B3n de dependencia, la consumaci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">vencimiento del= plazo de tres meses para la declaraci=C3=B3n y pago de la diferencia de im= puesto resultante, en el caso q= ue al trabajador-contribuyente no le hayan sido practicadas las retenciones= , o que el monto <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">de estas reten= ciones haya sido inferior a la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria total del trabaja= dor.382 Desde el punto de vi= sta de los patronos, responsables como agentes de retenci=C3=B3n de este im= puesto, dentro de los diez prim= eros d=C3=ADas de cada mes.383 Finalmente, en el caso del ISLR sobre rentas pasiv= as o de capital, los agentes de retenci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1n obligados a enterar el impuesto retenido dentro = de los diez primeros d=C3=ADas del mes siguiente al de la realizaci=C3=B3n del pago= que d=C3=A9 lugar al nacimiento del hecho imponible,384 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">plazo que ser= =C3=A1 igualmente = aplicable al contribuyente en el caso de ausencia de retenciones.= 385 Un r=C3=A9gimen id=C3=A9ntico es aplicable al cumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria en el c= aso de las rentas obtenidas por no residentes.386 <= /span>Ribeira Brava, abril de 2021. </= span> </= span>376 Este es el caso de la omisi=C3=B3n= de pago de tributos y de la mora, tipificados en los art=C3=ADculos 88, 89= y 92 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala. </= p>377 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 38. 378 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizac= i=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 39. 379 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculos 45 y = 46. 380 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci= =C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 48. 381 </spa= n>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 51; y 94.1. 382 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 81. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">383 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n = Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 80. 384 GUATE= MALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 94. &#x= a0;385 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria,= art=C3=ADculo 95. 386 GUATEMALA, Ley d= e Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculos 105 y 106. = 77 IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN</span= > </span= >1607-4319) <= /span> <= /span>Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciemb= re 2021 = pp. 78 - 90 _______________________________________________________= ______________________________ Acci=C3=B3n de Inconstitucionalidad pr= esentada por el Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal contra el =C3=BAltimo = p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 de la = ley 60 de 29 de diciembre de </= span>2006<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QUAUEP+Garamond Bold'; font-size= :22pt; letter-spacing:0.1pt">, =E2=80=9CQue reforma el C=C3=B3digo Electoral=E2=80=9D, Entrada = No. 647-08 Magistrado Ponente = Oyd=C3=A9n Ortega Dur=C3=A1n </= span>_________________________________________________________________________= _____ REP=C3=9ABLICA DE PANAM=C3=81 = =C3= =93RGANO JUDICIAL CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA =E2=80=93 PLENO <= /p>PANAM=C3=81= , VEINTISIETE (27) DE NOVIEMBRE DE DOS MIL CATORCE (2014) I. DISPOSICI=C3=93N ACUSADA DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDAD <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">1. La Acci=C3=B3n procesal que nos ocupa, plantea ante este Tribunal C= onstitucional, la inconstitucionalidad = del =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, tal como fue a= probado mediante la Ley 60 de 29 de diciembre de 2006, promu= lgada en la Gaceta Oficial N=C2=B025702 de 2 de enero de 2007. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 2. El referido texto legal impugnado es del tenor siguiente: <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> "Art=C3=ADculo 257 Cada partido pol=C3=ADtico podr=C3=A1 postular un c= andidato a Alcalde y a Representante de Corregimiento. = Igualmente podr=C3=A1n presentars= e candidatos por libre postulaci=C3=B3n. Dos o m=C3=A1s partidos pol= =C3=ADticos podr=C3=A1n postular a los mismos candidatos para principal y s= uplente a Alcaldes, y para principal y suplente a Representante de Co= rregimiento, caso en el cual los candidatos aparecer=C3=A1n en la columna d= e cada <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">partido en= la boleta =C3=BAnica de votaci=C3=B3n. Los candidatos principales o suplentes por libre po= stulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos</= span>". II. DISPOSICIONES CONSTITUCIONALES INFRINGIDAS <= /p>3. Sostiene el r= ecurrente que, el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3= =B3digo Electoral infringe el Art=C3=ADculo <= /p>1 de la Constitu= ci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual expresa lo siguiente: </= span>"<s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">Art=C3=ADculo 1. La Naci=C3=B3n paname=C3=B1a est=C3=A1 orga= nizada en Estado soberano e independiente, cuya denominaci=C3=B3n es </span= > = Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. Su Gobierno es unitario, republicano, democr= =C3=A1tico y representativo". </spa= n>4. Esta norma ha sido violada, al de= cir del activador constitucional, de manera directa por omisi=C3=B3n, </spa= n> </spa= n>por considerar que la misma establec= e que la Naci=C3=B3n Paname=C3=B1a tiene un Gobierno "Democr=C3=A1tico", lo= = ;que a s= u juicio se desvirt=C3=BAa cuando el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=AD= culo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral vigente </= p>establece la impo= sibilidad que una persona se postule libremente y pueda ser postulada al mi= smo tiem= po por un partido pol=C3=ADtico como candidato independiente, con el apoyo = de la mayor=C3=ADa de los 78 <= /span>paname=C3= =B1os, quienes son los que pueden elegir a los que en realidad ellos desean= ; se=C3=B1alando que, el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o es el que l= e da sustento y validez al sistema democr=C3=A1tico y por ende al sistema <= /span> electoral. Que, el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o, como objeto y suj= eto de la Constituci=C3=B3n se ve relegado en un </s= pan>segundo pla= no cuando tiene la calidad de independiente, seg=C3=BAn lo descrito en el a= rt=C3=ADculo 257 en examen. 5. Igualmente, de acuerdo con el recurrente, el =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral infringe el Art=C3=ADcu= lo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual es del siguiente tenor: </sp= an> </sp= an>"<spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Art=C3=ADculo 4. La Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 acata las no= rmas de Derecho Internacional". </s= pan>6. Esta nor= ma, seg=C3=BAn el autor de esta iniciativa, ha sido violada de manera direc= ta por omisi=C3=B3n, en atenci=C3=B3n a que la citada dispos= ici=C3=B3n reconoce el Derecho Internacional como rector de la convivencia = nacional= , la cual es violada porque la norma acusada de inconstitucional infringe l= a Convenci=C3=B3n = Americana de Derechos Humanos, reconocida y acatada por la Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. 7. El art=C3=ADculo 23 de esta Conv= enci=C3=B3n se=C3=B1ala lo siguiente: "Art=C3=ADculo 23: De= rechos Pol=C3=ADticos 1. Todos los ciudadanos deben gozar de los siguientes= derechos y oportunidades: a) de participar en la direcci=C3=B3n de l= os asuntos p=C3=BAblicos, directamente o por medio de representantes librem= ente elegidos; b) de votar y ser elegidos en e= lecciones peri=C3=B3dicas aut=C3=A9nticas, realizadas por sufragio universa= l e igual y por voto secreto que <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">garantice la = libre expresi=C3=B3n de la voluntad de los electores, y c) de tener acceso,= en condiciones generales de igualdad, a las = funciones p=C3=BAblicas = de su pa=C3=ADs. 2. La ley puede reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos y= oportunidades a que se refiere el inciso anterior, exclusivamente po= r razones de edad, nacionalidad, residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capa= cidad civil o mental, o condena, por juez comp= etente, en proceso penal." 8. Seg=C3= =BAn el activador constitucional, el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=AD= culo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral va en contra de lo que debe acatar la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 de = la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, al limitar el derecho de los ciud= adanos a solo poder ser candidatos por el m=C3=A9todo de la libre <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">postulaci=C3=B3n,= quedando excluidos de una posible postulaci=C3=B3n por un partido pol=C3= =ADtico. 9. El =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Elect= oral, se=C3=B1ala finalmente el recurrente, infringe el &= #xa0;Art=C3=ADculo 19 de la C= onstituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual indica lo siguiente: " Art=C3=ADculo 19. No habr=C3=A1 fueros o privi= legios ni discriminaci=C3=B3n por raz=C3=B3n de raza, nacimiento, discapaci= dad, clase social, sexo, religi=C3=B3n o ideas pol=C3=ADticas<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :0.05pt">". 10. Sostiene el Doctor Bernal Villalaz que, la norma citada ha sido vio= lada de manera directa por omis= i=C3=B3n, ya que seg=C3=BAn el mismo, la norma demandada establece que los = candidatos principales y suplentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser p= ostulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos, y sin embargo, dos o = m=C3=A1s partidos pol=C3=ADticos pueden postular a los mismos candidatos pa= ra principal y suplente a Alcaldes, y para principal y suple= nte a Representante; quedando, a su entender, en evidencia, la desigualdad = con respecto a los no inscritos en un partido pol=C3=ADtico,= en relaci=C3=B3n con los integrantes de un determinado &= #xa0;partido. En este aspecto= agrega que, "la transgresi=C3=B3n directa por acci=C3=B3n establecida en e= l art=C3=ADculo 257 cercena toda la posibilidad para los ciudadanos independientes = de ser postulados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico al mismo tiempo que tomar el camino = de la libre postulaci=C3=B3n". 79 &#= xa0;III. OPINI=C3=93N DE L= A PROCURADURIA GENERAL DE LA NACI=C3=93N 11. Al emitir la Procuradora General de la Naci=C3=B3n su op= ini=C3=B3n en esta acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad, lo hace mediante su Vista = N=C2=B0 36 de 19 de diciembre de 2008. Sostiene en su Vista que, al adoptar= se un si= stema de gobierno democr=C3=A1tico y representativo, el Estado paname=C3=B1= o reconoce que sus ciudadanos tienen derecho a participar en las estructuras que co= nforman el gobierno a trav=C3=A9s de la = postulaci=C3=B3n en los cargos de elecci= =C3=B3n popular, as=C3=AD como tambi=C3=A9n tienen el derecho de escoger a = las &#= xa0;personas que las representa= r=C3=A1n en dichas estructuras de gobierno, mediante la emisi=C3=B3n del vo= to. Que, el derecho pol=C3=ADtico que tiene el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o, se traduce = no solamente en el derecho a elegir libremente sus gobernantes, sino tambi=C3=A9n a= ser elegido en aquellos cargos que se acceden por votaci=C3=B3n <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >popular. 12. Expresa el representante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico la li= mitaci=C3=B3n en el derecho de elegir y ser elegido que se produce por raz=C3=B3n de la existencia del =C3= =BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, lo <= /span> <= /span>que calif= ica como una colisi=C3=B3n con la normativa constitucional que reconoce que= el gobierno paname=C3=B1o es democr=C3=A1tico, por cuanto que establece una prohib= ici=C3=B3n para aquellos ciudadanos que pretendan postularse libremente como candi= datos principales o suplentes a los puestos de elecci=C3=B3n popular de Alcalde o R= epresentante de Corregimiento, y al mismo tiempo puedan postularse como </s= pan> </s= pan>candidatos en un partido pol=C3=AD= tico. Indica igualmente este funcionario, que la prohibici=C3=B3n estableci= da &#x= a0;en la= norma objeto de censura, impide el pleno goce de los derechos pol=C3=ADtic= os de aquellos ciudadanos que no forman parte de un partido = pol=C3=ADtico, as=C3=AD como tambi=C3=A9n se restringe el derecho pol=C3=AD= tico de los miembros de un partido pol=C3=ADtico, al no pode= r postular a un candidato independiente o de libre <= /span>postulaci=C3=B3n. 13. Se pronuncia la Procuradora General de la= Naci=C3=B3n para que el candidato por libre postulaci=C3=B3n a <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = los puestos de el= ecci=C3=B3n popular de Alcalde y Representante de Corregimiento, goce en un= plano de igualdad, del mismo derecho de elegir y ser elegido, independientemente q= ue se encuentre inscrito o no e= n un partido pol=C3=ADtico, por lo que la limitaci=C3=B3n contenida en la p= arte final del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, vulnera la democracia participativa consagrada= en el art=C3=ADculo 1 de nuestra Carta Magna; ya que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo d= el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral en ninguna manera coadyuva a= la realizaci=C3=B3n de la democracia participativa que cons= agra nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, raz=C3=B3n por la que conside= ra que s= e ha demostrado el cargo de inconstitucionalidad alegado por el activador c= onstitucional. <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">14. En cuanto a la vulneraci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Consti= tuci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, por raz=C3=B3n de haberse = ;desconocido el art=C3=ADculo 2= 3 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, manifiesta en su Vis= ta &#x= a0;la re= presentante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico que, trat=C3=A1ndose de normas cons= agradas en los tratados o convenios internacionales suscritos por la Rep=C3=BAblica= de Panam=C3=A1 como normas de rango constitucional, hay que atender inmediatamente= al concepto denominado bloque de la constitucionalidad que ha sido = <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">adoptado por el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia al interpreta= r nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n; indicando = que la norma cont= enida en la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos utilizada por el = doctor M= iguel Antonio Bernal, como norma constitucional infringida, es una norma qu= e consagra el derecho pol=C3=AD= tico de elegir y ser elegido. 15. La Procuradora General de la Naci=C3=B3n efect=C3= =BAa un an=C3=A1lisis del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Americana de Derec= hos Humanos, en relaci=C3=B3n con los art=C3=ADculos constitucionales 132 y= 135, llegando <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">a la conclusi=C3=B3n que dicho art=C3=ADculo 23 es m=C3=A1s expl=C3= =ADcito en cuanto a los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los &= #xa0;80 ciudadanos, en relaci=C3=B3n con las generalidades= que sobre el tema contienen los textos constitucionales citados. As=C3=AD se expresa la representante del= Ministerio P=C3=BAblico: "En este sentido, si bien los art= =C3=ADculos 132 y 135 se refieren a los derechos de ciudadan=C3=ADa y al de= recho al sufragio, la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica no desarrolla e= stos derechos con la especificidad conforme han sido redactados en el art= =C3=ADculo 23 del Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9, por lo que me inclino a con= siderar que la norma utilizada por el activador constitucional tiene la </s= pan> jerarqu=C3=ADa de norma constitucional, en la medida que la misma fortal= ece los derechos m=C3=ADnimos contenidos en nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n= Pol=C3=ADtica en materia de derechos pol=C3=ADticos, adem=C3=A1s que la ju= risprudencia de nuestra M=C3=A1xima Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia reconoce que una norma convencional sobre derechos human= os con esas caracter=C3=ADsticas, integra la Constituci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = con fu= ndamento en la doctrina del bloque de la constitucionalidad. = Analizando el texto del art=C3= =ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, el mismo no= s permite ubicar, que la ley solamente puede reglamentar el ejercicio= de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, por razones de edad, nacionalidad, residen= cia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil= o mental, o por condena proferida por juez competente en proceso penal. </= span> Al ser estos los =C3=BAnicos criterios que permi= ten reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, la limitaci=C3= =B3n establecida en el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, o= stensiblemente sobrepasa los l=C3=ADmites que consagra la referida norma de= l Convenio = Intern= acional, en la medida que imposibilita el ejercicio del derecho pol=C3=ADti= co a ser elegido, a aquellos ciudadanos que han optado a participar en un proceso electoral= por v=C3=ADa de la libre postulaci=C3=B3n y no permit=C3=ADrsele ser postu= lado por un partido pol=C3=ADtico, lo que reviste una limitaci=C3=B3n= por raz=C3=B3n de sus ideas pol=C3=ADticas. = El =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rr= afo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral es contrario al art=C3= =ADculo 23 del Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9, ya que entra a reglamentar el = ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los ciudadanos paname=C3=B1os p= or raz=C3=B3n de sus ideas pol=C3=ADticas, lo cual = no es posible". = 16. Finalmente, c= oncluye la representante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico se=C3=B1alando que, "a= las personas inscritas en los partidos pol=C3=ADticos en nuestro pa=C3=ADs, se le = ha dispensado un mejor trato a trav=C3=A9s de las disposiciones legales en materia electoral, versus aquel= las personas que no se encuentran inscritas en un partido pol=C3=ADtico, en lo que respecta al tema de las= postulaciones a los cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular, lo que obviamente plantea un = trato discriminatorio, el cual se ve reflejado en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rra= fo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral." = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">17. Con base en sus argumentos expuestos considera este funcionario= que el activador constitucional ha logrado probar el cargo = de inconstitucionalidad, por estimar que, "el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del = art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral plantea una desigualdad y discriminaci= =C3=B3n contra aquellas personas que se postulan a los cargos de Alcalde o Represe= ntante de Corregimiento por libre postulaci=C3=B3n, con respecto <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">a aquellas persona= s que son postuladas a dichos cargos, por los partidos pol=C3=ADticos." </s= pan> </s= pan>IV. CO= NSIDERACIONES Y DECISI=C3=93N DE LA CORTE </spa= n>18. Una vez examinada la presente co= ntroversia, y cumplidos los tr=C3=A1mites constitucionales y legales, el </= span> </= span>Pleno de l= a Corte Suprema de Justicia proceder=C3=A1 a efectuar las consideraciones q= ue sean de lugar, teniendo como base la iniciativa del recurrente, as=C3=AD como lo= s alegatos presentados y la opini=C3=B3n de la Procuradur=C3=ADa General de la Naci= =C3=B3n. 19. Sostiene el activador Constitucional que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo d= el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral infringe los art=C3=ADculos 1, 4 y 19 de la Constituci=C3= =B3n Nacional, porque al decir del mismo, se atenta contra el car=C3=A1cter democr=C3=A1tico del Gobierno = paname=C3=B1o; se vulnera el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3= =ADtica que obliga al Estado pa= name=C3=B1o a acatar las normas del Derecho Internacional, en referencia di= recta al art=C3=ADculo 23 de la= Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos de 1969, aprobada por la Rep= =C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 mediante Ley 15 de 28 de octubre de 1977, que se refiere= a los derechos pol=C3=ADticos del 81 = = ciudadano y se vulnera igualmente el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Carta Magna por= cuanto que, al indicarse en la norma impugnada que los candidatos principales o su= plentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n no puedan ser </s= pan>postulados = por partidos pol=C3=ADticos, se crea una discriminaci=C3=B3n en perjuicio d= e estos candidatos, al no poder ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos. = = 20. Al analizar= esta iniciativa de impugnaci=C3=B3n constitucional, trat=C3=A1ndose de un = tema trascendente como es el derecho de los paname=C3=B1os a= elegir y ser elegido (libertad pol=C3=ADtica por antonomasia), debe esta <= /span> Corporaci= =C3=B3n de Justicia apelar a los antecedentes hist=C3=B3ricos de estos dere= chos. As=C3=AD tenemos, que la Carta Magna de Inglaterra del siglo XI se reconoce c= omo el texto legal precursor de los derechos = individuales de todos los tiempos, por= lo que se le considera como el acta bautismal de los derechos <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">de la persona humana= en la civilizaci=C3=B3n occidental. Partiendo de este firme fundamento his= t=C3=B3rico constitucional, es que Panam=C3=A1 ha participad= o activamente en los movimientos pro derechos humanos = 0;que se han desarrollado en la= segunda mitad del siglo XX, incorporando el antiguo legado de la Carta </s= pan> </s= pan>Magna en materia de derechos civil= es aprobados durante la Revoluci=C3=B3n Inglesa del siglo XVII, la <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Declaraci=C3=B3n= de los Derechos del Hombre de los Estados Unidos de Am=C3=A9rica y la Revo= luci=C3=B3n Francesa. As=C3=AD mismo, ha aprobado y ratificado los Tratados y Conve= nciones sobre Derechos Humanos, que tienen jerarqu=C3=ADa de leyes de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica; sirviendo muchos de estos Tratados de verdaderos referentes <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">constitucionales, y as=C3=AD se ha consagrado por la doctrina del blo= que de constitucionalidad. 21. Menci=C3=B3n especial merece, la valiosa innovaci=C3= =B3n en cuanto a la base de protecci=C3=B3n de los derechos fundamentales derivada = del Acto Constitucional de 2004, que dispuso la modificaci=C3=B3n del art= =C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Re= p=C3=BAblica, que en su p=C3=A1rrafo segundo establece que los derechos y <= /span> garant=C3= =ADas consagrados por la Constituci=C3=B3n, deben considerarse como m=C3=AD= nimos y no excluyentes de otros que incidan sobre los derechos fundamentales y la d= ignidad de la persona. Se trata de un trascendente instrumento normativo que obliga= a los operadores de justicia, y en particular a la Corte Suprema de Justicia en su= condici=C3=B3n de Tribunal Constitucional, a sustentarse en los Tratados y= Convenciones sobre derechos humanos y los pronunciamientos = de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en esta mater= ia. 22. La Corte Suprema de Justicia, c=C3=BAspide de nuestr= o sistema jurisdiccional y =C3=BAnica int=C3=A9rprete de la = Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, debe cuidar y acrecentar celosamente este legad= o hist=C3=B3rico de defensa de los derechos individuales y p= ol=C3=ADticos. Por consiguiente, al disponerse en el art=C3=ADculo 1 de la = Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, que el Gobierno de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica de Panam=C3=A1 es democr=C3=A1tico y representativo, se est=C3=A1 </sp= an> haciendo alusi=C3=B3n a una de las clases de democracia seg=C3= =BAn la trilog=C3=ADa cl=C3=A1sica, la que habla de tres clases <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> de democracia: a) democracia directa o pura, b) democracia representati= va o indirecta y c) democracia semi directa. Teniendo en c= uenta que la democracia representativa es la que impera en Panam=C3=A1 y en= la mayo= r=C3=ADa de los pa=C3=ADses, y siendo que ella descansa en el principio de = la elecci=C3=B3n de los gobernantes, cualquiera disposici=C3=B3n que impida la part= icipaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos paname=C3=B1os en la elecci=C3=B3n libre <= /span> de los go= bernantes y en la posibilidad de ser elegidos, como lo hace el =C3=BAltimo = p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, vulnera el art=C3=ADc= ulo 1 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el que debe interpretarse no </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">como una norma= exclusivamente program=C3=A1tica, sino en relaci=C3=B3n con otras normas, = tanto = constitucionales como le= gales. 2= 3. Conviene en este aspecto, hacer algunas reflexiones sobre el concepto de= Democracia y por consiguiente, sobre el concepto de Estado Constitucional de Derec= ho. Para algunos, la pol=C3=ADtica es la ciencia del Estado, para otros, como el profesor de la Universida= d de Paris, Maurice Duverguer, es la 82 ciencia del poder en todas las colectividades humanas, en todos los grupo= s sociales y no s=C3=B3lo en el Estado. (DUVERGUER, Maurice= , "Instituciones Pol=C3=ADticas y Derecho Constitucional", Editorial Ariel,= S. A. Barcelona, 1984, p=C3=A1g. 428). De all=C3=AD, que la= ciencia Pol=C3=ADtica otorga la debida importancia al concepto <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> de Democracia y por tanto, al Estado Constitucional de Derecho. El auto= r franc=C3=A9s, Juan Jacobo Rousseau, en el siglo XVIII, fue= quien m=C3=A1s favoreci=C3=B3 la democracia como forma de gobierno y expus= o con claridad el concepto y las ventajas de la misma. Rouss= eau conceb=C3=ADa la democracia como la = entendieron los antiguos; como gobierno = directo del pueblo. Para Rousseau, democracia era "la intervenci=C3=B3n efectiva = y constante de todos los ciudadanos en la marcha del gobierno". <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> 24. Dentro de la Democracia, seg=C3=BAn la concepci=C3=B3n de Rosseau, = es que se puede garantizar las libertades </p= >de los individuos= , como derechos inherentes a los mismos. Esta libertad es posible, siempre = que existan derechos individuales previamente establecidos y= las garant=C3=ADas para hacer valer los mismos, </s= pan>raz=C3=B3n por la que la Constituc= i=C3=B3n Nacional establece, en su parte dogm=C3=A1tica, los derechos indiv= iduales y los derechos sociales= . = 0;25. A = menudo se habla de dos tipos de libertad: la libertad civil y la libertad p= ol=C3=ADtica. La primera, se refiere al conjunto de derechos= que tienen los individuos para proteger su vida. La libertad pol=C3=ADtica= consist= e, por su parte, en los derechos del ciudadano frente al gobierno del Estad= o, para escoger y = fiscalizar a = sus gobernantes y para ser escogido como tales. Ambas libertades son igualm= ente &= #xa0;i= mportantes, ya que no podr=C3=ADa ejercerse una sin el ejercicio de la otra= . 26. Pero la libertad pol=C3=ADtica en una Democracia repre= sentativa, no puede tener vigencia sin el </p= >indispensable complemento de Elecciones = libres, consideradas a su vez, como esenciales para el fortalecimiento de la Democracia. En este aspecto= , juegan papel importante, tanto el Gobierno, los Partidos Pol=C3=ADticos y los ciu= dadanos en general. Estos =C3=BAltimos pueden participar en los procesos de= Elecciones, ya sea directamente o por intermedio de partido= s pol=C3=ADticos; por lo que, no se puede </p= >prohibir a =C3=A9= stos, postular para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular a cualquier ciudadano, = incluyendo a los que previamente, se hayan postulado como candidatos de libre postu= laci=C3=B3n. De ser as=C3=AD, al disponer el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3dig= o Electoral, que los partidos pol=C3=ADticos s=C3=B3lo pueden postular </sp= an> </sp= an>candidatos d= entro de sus miembros o a otras personas siempre que no est=C3=A9n postulad= os; se estar=C3=ADa impidiendo a los candidatos de libre pos= tulaci=C3=B3n, su participaci=C3=B3n plena en los torneos electorales, </sp= an> base de la Democracia representativa, la que se exalta en el art= =C3=ADculo 1 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, que &= #xa0;e= stima vulnerado, esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia, por parte de la disposi= ci=C3=B3n impugnada. 27. Trat=C3=A1ndose de la solicitud del= activador constitucional, para que se declare la inconstitucionalidad </sp= an> del =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3di= go Electoral, por violar el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Constituci=C3=B3n </span= > <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Pol=C3=ADtica, el Pleno de la Corte se permite las siguientes cons= ideraciones: El proceso electoral o sufragio, </span= >constituye el medio para el escogimie= nto de la mayor=C3=ADa de los cargos p=C3=BAblicos, particularmente, dentro= = ;del =C3=93rgano Ejecutivo, el = =C3=93rgano Legislativo, los Consejos Municipales y otros puestos de elecci= =C3=B3n = popular. La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam= =C3=A1, al referirse al sufragio, expresa en su </sp= an>art=C3=ADculo 135 que el mismo es u= n derecho y un deber de todos los ciudadanos. Ahora bien, para ejercer </sp= an> </sp= an>este derecho= , la democracia representativa cuenta con la existencia de partidos pol=C3= =ADticos, los cuales son, seg=C3=BAn la doctrina, asociaciones pol=C3=ADticas de ci= udadanos, que se organizan y act=C3=BAan como una unidad pol=C3=ADtica, mediante un programa o plataforma = ideol=C3=B3gica af=C3=ADn, con el prop=C3=B3sito de alcanzar el <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = poder pol=C3=ADtico, para contribuir a l= a realizaci=C3=B3n de los fines del Estado. De all=C3=AD, que los mismos no= = ;pueden = existir sin la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos, debiendo reflejar los = primeros, los ideales de las 83 mayor= =C3=ADas. En la doctrina democr=C3=A1tica, los partidos pol=C3=ADticos no p= ueden existir sobre la base de ning=C3=BAn tipo de exclusi=C3=B3n, ya sea de edad, condici=C3=B3n racial, = confesi=C3=B3n religiosa, o clase social de sus miembros. En este contexto es que d= ebe analizarse el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3= =B3digo Electoral, sobre todo, a la luz de los art=C3=ADculos 1 y 19 de la Carta Ma= gna y del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, en concordancia con el Art= =C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica. 28. A partir de la reforma cons= titucional de 1983, se incorporaron en la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica v= arias disposiciones sobre la existencia y desarrollo de los = partidos pol=C3=ADticos, lo que debe a su vez, guardar &= #xa0;r= elaci=C3=B3n y concordancia con el art=C3=ADculo 1 del texto constitucional= , en cuanto a la existencia de un Gobierno democr=C3=A1tico representativo. Por tan= to, al indicarse en el art=C3=ADculo 138 de la Carta fundamental <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >que "los partidos pol=C3=ADticos expresa= n el pluralismo pol=C3=ADtico, concurren a la formaci=C3=B3n y manifestaci= =C3=B3n de la voluntad popular = y son instrumentos fundamentales para la participaci=C3=B3n", aclara y expr= esa &#= xa0;igua= lmente que, la actuaci=C3=B3n de dichos partidos pol=C3=ADticos debe llevar= se a cabo, "sin perjuicio de la postulaci=C3=B3n libre, en = la forma prevista en la Constituci=C3=B3n y la Ley". Tal disposici=C3=B3n e= xcluye cualquier tipo de discriminaci=C3=B3n en relaci=C3=B3n con los candidatos de= libre postulaci=C3=B3n. Por consiguiente, estima el Pleno que, al indicarse en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rraf= o del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral que, "los candidatos </sp= an> </sp= an>principales o suplentes por libre p= ostulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos"= , se &= #xa0;v= ulnera igualmente, el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtic= a, que a la letra dice: "No habr=C3=A1 fueros o </sp= an>privilegios ni discriminaci=C3=B3n = por raz=C3=B3n de raza, nacimiento, discapacidad, clase social, sexo, relig= i=C3=B3n o ideas pol=C3=ADticas". La discriminaci=C3=B3n en este caso se da evident= emente por razones de ideas pol=C3=ADticas, en </spa= n>contra de los= candidatos principales o suplentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> 29. Por otro lado, = el derecho a elegir y ser elegido, debe ser considerado como un derecho hum= ano, &= #xa0;t= al como lo indica el art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de De= rechos Humanos, el cual, considera esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia, requiere una = efectiva tutela constitucional. De este aspecto se han ocupado numerosos autores = latinoamericanos, como el argentino N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3=BCes y el prof= esor de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, Allan Brewer- C= ar=C3=ADas. Este =C3=BAltimo sostiene que, en el proceso &= #xa0;d= e garantizar la supremac=C3=ADa de la Constituci=C3=B3n y, mediante ella, l= a efectiva vigencia de los derechos humanos, los tribunales = constitucionales de Am=C3=A9rica Latina, han tenido que recurrir no s=C3=B3= lo a los principios y valores establecidos o derivados del texto de las Constitucio= nes, sino a lo que se dispone en los Tratados internacionales sobre derechos humano= s. Sostiene este autor, que una de las = caracter=C3=ADsti= cas m=C3=A1s destacadas del Derecho de los derechos humanos en Am=C3=A9rica= Latina, es la progresiva aplicaci=C3=B3n por los tribunal= es constitucionales, de los instrumentos internacionales de = derechos humanos, a los efectos de su protecci=C3=B3n en el orden interno. = 30. En primer lugar, seg=C3=BAn el autor citado, se destaca = la t=C3=A9cnica de las llamadas cl=C3=A1usulas abiertas sobre derechos humanos incorporadas en las Constituciones latinoamericanas, las= cuales tienen su origen remoto en la enmienda IX de la Constituci=C3=B3n de los Es= tados Unidos de Am=C3=A9rica (1791), que dispuso: "La enumeraci=C3=B3n de ciertos d= erechos en la Constituci=C3=B3n no debe construirse como la negaci=C3=B3n o= desecho= de otros que el pueblo conserva". Con ello se buscaba, seg=C3=BAn el autor= citado, confirmar que la lista= de los derechos constitucionales no termina en aquellos expresamente decla= rados y enumerados en los textos constitucionales. Esta concepci=C3=B3n se incorpor= =C3=B3, luego de la reforma constitucional de </span= >2004, en el se= gundo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 17 de nuestra Carta Magna, al disponer= se que, "los derechos y garant=C3=ADas que consagra esta Constituci=C3=B3n, deben c= onsiderarse como m=C3=ADnimo y no excluyentes de otros que incidan sobre los derech= os fundamentales y la dignidad de la persona". </spa= n>84 31. La segunda t=C3=A9cnica interpretativa, al decir del autor = Allan Brewer-Car=C3=ADas, ha conducido a los tribunales constitucionales a aplicar los Tratados internacio= nales en el =C3=A1mbito interno, para identificar derechos constitucionales no desa= rrollados en los textos constitucionales, y se deriva de la aplicaci=C3=B3n= de las llamadas cl=C3=A1usulas complementarias de las cl=C3= =A1usulas abiertas, conforme a las cuales, todos los = ;derecho= s constitucionales son directamente aplicables, independientemente de su re= gulaci=C3=B3n legislativa o desarrollo mediante leyes reglam= entarias, lo que ha permitido la aplicaci=C3=B3n directa de aqu=C3=A9llos. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>32. La tercera t= =C3=A9cnica interpretativa, sostiene el autor que venimos comentando, ha pe= rmitido a los tribunales constitucionales la aplicaci=C3=B3n directa de los Tratado= s internacionales en materia de derechos humanos, ampliando progresivamente el elen= co de los derechos humanos protegidos en las = Constituciones, lo que se deriva del p= ropio texto de las Constituciones, por el reconocimiento expreso <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >de determinado ra= ngo normativo a los referidos Tratados; concluyendo que, ciertas Constituci= ones lat= inoamericanas han otorgado rango supraconstitucional a los derechos declara= dos en instrumentos internacion= ales, en particular en los Tratados ratificados por los Estados. (BREWER-CA= R=C3=8DAS, Allan <= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">R., "Nuevas reflexiones sobre el papel de los tribunales constituc= ionales en la consolidaci=C3=B3n del Estado <= /p>democr=C3=A1tico= de derecho: defensa de la constituci=C3=B3n, control del poder y protecci= =C3=B3n de los derechos humanos", Anuario de Derecho Constit= ucional Latinoamericano, 2007, 13er a=C3=B1o, Tomo I, Fundaci=C3=B3n </span= > <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, p=C3=A1gs. 80- 85- 86- 88). <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 33. El criterio ante= rior es aplicado en Panam=C3=A1 por v=C3=ADa jurisprudencial, bajo el influ= jo de la doctrina del bloque de constitucionalidad, a partir de 1990, pero s=C3=B3l= o en relaci=C3=B3n con los Convenios internacionales = ;sobre derechos humanos, a los = cuales ha adherido la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. El bloque de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>constitucionalida= d, seg=C3=BAn el Doctor Arturo Hoyos, en su obra "La interpretaci=C3=B3n co= nstitucional", "es el conjunto normativo de jerarqu=C3=ADa constitucional que la Co= rte Suprema de Justicia ha empleado para emitir juicio sobre la constitucionalidad de las leyes y de otros= actos sujetos al control judicial de esa instituci=C3=B3n". (HOYOS, Arturo, "La interpretaci=C3=B3n const= itucional", Editorial Temis, Santa Fe de Bogot=C3=A1-Colombia, 1998, p=C3=A1g. 98). 34. En la Sentencia de 25 de o= ctubre de 1996, bajo la ponencia del Magistrado Rogelio A. F=C3=A1brega Z.,= el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, en relaci=C3=B3n = con la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos = Humanos y su ob= servancia a la luz de la doctrina del bloque de Constitucionalidad se=C3=B1= al=C3=B3 que: ... "el art=C3=ADculo 8 de la Convenci=C3=B3n = Americana de Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9) ha sido <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> incorporado por este= Pleno al bloque de constitucionalidad, sirviendo, por tanto, como par=C3= =A1metro para enjuiciar el cumplimiento, por las autoridades judiciales, de la gara= nt=C3=ADa del debido proceso, como lo hizo en la sentencia de constitucionalidad de= 19 de marzo de 1993". 35. La constitucionalizaci=C3=B3n de los derechos humanos se= hizo efectiva, al incorporarse el segundo </= p>p=C3=A1rrafo al a= rt=C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, el cual se=C3=B1ala = que los derechos y garant=C3=ADas que consagra la Constituci=C3=B3n deben considera= rse como m=C3=ADnimos y no excluyentes de otros que guarden relaci=C3=B3n con derec= hos fundamentales y la dignidad de la persona. Esta adici=C3=B3n al art=C3= =ADculo 17 citado, debe entenderse como una alusi=C3=B3n directa a la tutela de los= derechos humanos. Se consolid=C3=B3 de esta manera, lo que se conoce como la const= itucionalizaci=C3=B3n de la internacionalizaci=C3=B3n de los derechos </spa= n> = humanos, cuya g=C3=A9nesis en Panam=C3=A1 se encuentra en la doct= rina del bloque de constitucionalidad. = 85= 36. Habida cuenta de la constitucionalizaci= =C3=B3n de los derechos humanos internacionales, debe = 0;considerarse la incorporaci= =C3=B3n de otros Convenios internacionales sobre derechos humanos, en adici= =C3=B3n = a la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San Jos=C3= =A9), tales como: Convenci=C3=B3n para la Prevenci=C3=B3n y = la Sanci=C3=B3n del Delito de Genocidio, aprobada mediante Ley No. 32 de 5 = de dicie= mbre de 1949; Convenci=C3=B3n Internacional sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de to= das las formas de = Discriminaci= =C3=B3n Racial, aprobada mediante Ley No. 49 de 2 de febrero de 1967; Pacto= Internacional <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">de Derechos Econ=C3=B3micos, Sociales y Culturales, aprobado mediant= e Ley No. 13 de 27 de octubre de 1976; Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Po= l=C3=ADticos, aprobado mediante Ley No. 14 de 28 de octubre de 1976; Protocolo Facultativo del Pacto Inter= nacional de Derechos Civiles y Pol=C3=ADticos, aprobado mediante Ley No. 15 de 28 d= e octubre de 1976; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre la Imprescriptibilidad de <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">los Crimines de = Guerra y de los Cr=C3=ADmenes de Lesa Humanidad, aprobada mediante Ley No. = 56 de 20 de diciembre de 2006; = Convenci=C3=B3n Internacional sobre la Represi=C3=B3n y el Castigo del Crim= en del A= partheid, aprobada mediante Ley No. 8 de 26 de octubre de 1976; Convenci=C3= =B3n sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas las formas de Disc= riminaci=C3=B3n Contra la Mujer, aprobada mediante Ley No. 4 de 22 de mayo = de 1981; Convenci=C3=B3n contra la Tortura y otros Tratos o = Penas Crueles Inhumanos o Degradantes, = aprobada mediante= Ley No. 5 de 16 de junio de 1987; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana para Prev= enir y Sancionar la Tortura, aprobada mediante Ley No. 12 de= 18 de junio de 1991; Protocolo Adicional a la </spa= n>Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Dere= chos Humanos en materia de Derechos Econ=C3=B3micos, Sociales y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = Culturales, (Prot= ocolo de San Salvador), aprobado mediante Ley No. 21 de 22 de octubre de 19= 92; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o, aproba= da mediante Ley No. 15 de 6 de noviembre de 1990; </= span>Segundo Protocolo 37. Facultativo del Pac= to Internacional sobre Derechos Civiles y Pol=C3=ADticos dirigido a la Abol= ici=C3=B3n de la Pena de Muerte, aprobado mediante Ley No. 23 de 17 de noviembre de= 1992; Protocolo a la Convenci= =C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos Relativo a la Abolici=C3=B3n de la= Pena de Muerte, <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">aprobado mediante Ley No. 13 de 18 de junio de 1991; Convenio Cons= titutivo del Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Ind=C3= =ADgenas de Am=C3=A9rica Latina y El Caribe, aprobado mediante Ley No. 27 <= /span> de 13 de = diciembre de 1993; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana sobre Desaparici=C3=B3n F= orzada de Personas, aprobado me= diante Ley No. 32 de 28 de junio de 1995; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana pa= ra Prevenir, <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Sancionar y Erradicar la Violencia Contra la Mujer (Convenci=C3=B3n de= Belem Do Para), aprobada mediante Ley No. 12 de 20 de abril= de 1995; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana para la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas = las form= as de Discriminaci=C3=B3n contra las personas con Discapacidad, aprobada me= diante Ley No. 3 de 10 de enero de 2001; Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3= n sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas las formas </sp= an>de Discrimin= aci=C3=B3n contra la Mujer, aprobado mediante Ley No. 17 de 28 de marzo de = 2001; Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o= Relativo a la Venta de Ni=C3=B1os, la Prostituci=C3=B3n Infantil y la Utilizaci=C3=B3n de Ni=C3=B1os en= la Pornograf=C3=ADa, aprobado mediante Ley No. 47 de 13 de diciembre de 2000; Prot= ocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o Re= lativo a la Participaci=C3=B3n de Ni=C3=B1os en los Conflict= os Armados, aprobado mediante Ley No. 48 de 13 de </= span>diciembre = de 2000; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacida= d y el Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos de las Person= as con Discapacidad, aprobado m= ediante Ley No. 25 de 10 de julio de 2007. 38. Mediante sostenida jurisprudencia la= Corte Suprema de Justicia ha incorporado los Convenios &= #xa0;s= obre derechos humanos al bloque de constitucionalidad. Esta pr=C3=A9dica ju= risprudencial se reafirma con la Sentencia del Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justici= a de fecha 21 de agosto de 2008, bajo la ponencia del Magistrado Jer=C3=B3nimo Mej= =C3=ADa. En la parte pertinente de esta Sentencia se dice lo siguiente: </s= pan> 86 = "En efecto, la Constituci=C3=B3n reconoce (no otorga) una serie de= derechos fundamentales que, incluso, se encuentran ampliados <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">y compl= ementados en Convenciones Internacionales sobre derechos humanos. La vigenc= ia de tales derechos, que solo tiene lugar cuando existe un sistema de protecci=C3=B3n judic= ial que los tutele efectivamente, es lo que permite que la normatividad </s= pan>&#= xa0;de la constituci=C3= =B3n tenga vigencia, con lo cual se asegura el mantenimiento de la supremac= =C3=ADa constitucional y se preserva el Estado de Derecho. El sistema de protecci=C3=B3n no consiste exclusi= vamente en la incorporaci=C3=B3n al ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico de normas di= rigidas a <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">garanti= zar el reconocimiento y la vigencia de los derechos fundamentales. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> <= /span>La tutela judicial efecti= va se consigue cuando se logra el reconocimiento de los derechos fundamenta= les establecidos en la Constituci=C3=B3n, en los tratados y convenciones internacionales sob= re derechos humanos vigentes en Panam=C3=A1 y en las leyes, <= /p>de manera que los mismos puedan = ser restaurados cuando han sido lesionado. Por ello, un sistema de pr= otecci=C3=B3n judicial de derechos fundamentales que no sea capaz de tutela= rlos efectivamente hace ilusorios tales dere= chos y est=C3=A1 lejos de contribuir a la consolidaci=C3=B3n y preservaci= =C3=B3n de un verdadero Estado de Derecho. </= span>Finalmente, es importante = se=C3=B1alar que los derechos fundamentales tutelables a trav=C3=A9s de un = amparo pueden estar reconocidos en la Constituci=C3=B3n, en los Trata= dos y Convenios Internacionales sobre derechos humanos vigentes en Panam=C3= =A1 o en la ley, tal y como sabiamente lo establece el art=C3=ADculo = 25 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos"= . 39. No= cabe la menor duda, que la Sentencia citada reitera la equiparaci=C3=B3n c= onstitucional que se otorga por= esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia a los Convenios Internacionales sobre de= rechos humanos, en atenci=C3=B3n al bloque de constitucionalidad. Se demuestra tamb= i=C3=A9n, que el Derecho Internacional deja <= /p>espacio y margen de apreciaci=C3=B3n a = los Tribunales Nacionales. As=C3=AD se desprende de nuevas teor=C3=ADas en = el &#x= a0;=C3=A1mbito del Derecho Cons= titucional, tales como la de la concepci=C3=B3n de la existencia de una </s= pan> </s= pan>Constituci= =C3=B3n viviente y cambiante, aspecto que plante=C3=B3 en su momento el con= stitucionalista paname=C3=B1o, doctor Jos=C3=A9 Dolores Mos= cote y en la actualidad, el argentino doctor N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3=BCes,= catedr= =C3=A1tico de Derecho Constitucional de la Universidad de Buenos Aires y Pr= esidente del Instituto Iberoamericano de Derecho Procesal Constitucional, quien sos= tiene que debe exigirse que el cambio social tenga consenso = y que responda a un fuerte ingrediente de justicia. Esto lo explica el doct= or Sag= =C3=BCes en base a la teor=C3=ADa de la progresividad, la que, al decir del= mismo, debe ser vista de manera objetiva, pero atendiendo el cumplimiento de direc= trices del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos </s= pan>Humanos. (P= onencia presentada en el XVII Encuentro del Presidentes y Magistrados de Tr= ibunales y Salas Constitucionales de Am=C3=A9rica Latina, celebrado en Panam=C3=A1,= del 3 al 8 de octubre de 2010, organizado por la Fundaci=C3=B3n Konrad Adenauer y la Corte Suprema de Jus= ticia de Panam=C3=A1). 40. Esta= s nuevas teor=C3=ADas han dado surgimiento al concepto de cultura constituc= ional, la que es definida por P= eter Haberle como: "una suma de actitudes, ideas, experiencias subjetivas, = valores y expectativas, y de la= s correspondientes acciones objetivas, tanto en la esfera personal del ciud= adano como en la de sus asociac= iones, los =C3=B3rganos estatales y cualesquiera otros relacionados con la = constituci=C3=B3n" (HABERLE, Peter, "Teor=C3=ADa de la constituci=C3=B3n como cienc= ia de la cultura, Madrid: Tecnos, 2000, pp. <= /p>36 ss). A partir= del concepto de cultura constitucional, el doctor N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3= =BCes estima que es posible distinguir tres escenarios: "a) = la cultura constitucional del constituyente, b) la cultura c= onstitucional de los operadores de la constituci=C3=B3n, y c) la cultura co= nstitucional de la sociedad". (SAG=C3=9CES, N=C3=A9stor Pedro, "Cultura constitucio= nal y desconstitucionalizaci=C3=B3n", Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, Fundaci=C3=B3n Ko= nrad Adenauer, a=C3=B1o XVI, Montevideo, 2010, p=C3=A1g. 99). <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">41. Existe en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3= =A1, una acumulaci=C3=B3n de factores que ha influido en la toma de = = conciencia, par= a tutelar derechos acordes con las demandas de la sociedad. A estas exigenc= ias ha r= espondido gradualmente el constituyente paname=C3=B1o, lo que se ha refleja= do en los operadores 87 </span= >constitucional= es, frente a una sociedad, cuyas reclamaciones de justicia constitucional h= a tenido una trayectoria perfectamente definida. Este nuevo entorno constitucional = tiene como marco, entre otros hechos, los siguientes: la reforma constitucional de = 1983, que defini=C3=B3 los l=C3=ADmites de la declaraci=C3=B3n de <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">"estado de urgencia" o suspensi=C3=B3n de garant=C3=ADas constitucion= ales, e incorpor=C3=B3 un t=C3=ADtulo sobre derechos = ;sociales; la reforma constituc= ional de 2004 que ampli=C3=B3 la protecci=C3=B3n respecto de otros derechos= , al &= #xa0;a= dicionar el art=C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica; y elev= =C3=B3 a rango constitucional el Recurso de Habeas <= /span>Data, etc= . Al mismo tiempo, ha coexistido una jurisprudencia cada vez m=C3=A1s unifo= rme en materia de Habeas Corpus, Amparo de Garant=C3=ADas Co= nstitucionales y Advertencias de Inconstitucionalidad, que i= ncluye reducci=C3=B3n de tiempo de tramitaci=C3=B3n mediante plazos comunes= para lectura, nuevos par=C3=A1metros y modalidades, etc. 42. As=C3=AD las cosas, esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justici= a, no puede menos que arribar a la conclusi=C3=B3n que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo = del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral es violatorio del art=C3=AD= culo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, que destaca = la primac=C3=ADa del Derecho Internacional sobre el Derecho Interno, por ra= z=C3=B3n que el art=C3=ADculo impugnado desconoce e infringe el art=C3=ADculo 23 de= la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, conocida como Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9; ya que, el art=C3= =ADculo 23 de dicha Convenci=C3=B3n postula el derecho de todos los ciudadanos de "participar en la direcc= i=C3=B3n de los asuntos p=C3=BAblicos, directamente o por medio de representantes libremente elegidos", ad= em=C3=A1s del derecho de "elegir y ser elegidos en elecciones peri=C3=B3dicas aut= =C3=A9nticas". Este mismo art=C3=ADculo de la Convenci=C3=B3n que citamos, = se=C3=B1ala que la Ley puede reglamentar este importante derecho humano, pero, excl= usivamente "por razones de edad, nacionalidad, residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil o men= tal, o condena, por juez competente, en proceso penal". Como se puede apreciar, no = puede una Ley de un Estado parte de esta Convenci=C3=B3n, po= ner condiciones que excluyan la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos por ra= zones po= l=C3=ADticas o de otro tipo, no se=C3=B1alados en la propia Convenci=C3=B3n= , como lo ha hecho el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >43. El Comit=C3=A9 de Derechos Humanos a= dopt=C3=B3 en 1996 su Observaci=C3=B3n General N=C2=B0 25 sobre los = = derechos pol=C3= =ADticos, en la cual estableci=C3=B3 algunos criterios generales tendiente = a determinar cu=C3=A1ndo puede permitirse restricciones al derecho de votar. Se se= =C3=B1al=C3=B3 en la Observaci=C3=B3n General N=C2=B0 25 que, <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">debe considerarse no s=C3=B3lo la legalidad = de la restricci=C3=B3n que se imponga en el ejercicio de elegir y ser </spa= n> </spa= n>elegido, sino= tambi=C3=A9n atender a criterios de razonabilidad; estim=C3=A1ndose, por v= =C3=ADa de ejemplo, como irrazonables y violatorios de la Co= nvenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, incluir aspectos como: = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la discapacidad= f=C3=ADsica, la capacidad para leer y escribir, el nivel de instrucci=C3= =B3n, la situaci=C3=B3n econ=C3=B3mica y la afiliaci=C3=B3n partidaria. Por otro = lado, se analiz=C3=B3 el derecho de los ciudadanos a presentarse como </spa= n> = candidatos a cargos de elecci=C3=B3n, indic=C3=A1ndose que, "nadi= e debe ser privado de este derecho por la </p= >imposici=C3=B3n de requisitos irrazonabl= es o de car=C3=A1cter discriminatorio, como el nivel de instrucci=C3=B3n, e= l = 0;lugar de residencia o la desc= endencia, o a causa de su afiliaci=C3=B3n pol=C3=ADtica". Se considera tamb= i=C3=A9n que la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">afiliaci=C3=B3n= a un partido pol=C3=ADtico, y menos a=C3=BAn a un partido determinado, no = debe ser requisito para presentarse como candidato, ni obst=C3=A1culo o la presenta= ci=C3=B3n de una candidatura. 44. La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ha da= do el justo valor e importancia a los partidos pol=C3=ADticos, lo cual es compartid= o por el Pleno de esta Corporaci=C3=B3n; sin embargo, tratando de armonizar= criterios, sin desmerecer la importancia de los partidos po= l=C3=ADticos, considera la Corte Interamericana de <= /span>Derechos = Humanos, que se puede garantizar la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos no= inscritos en los mismos. La Comisi=C3=B3n Interamericana de= Derechos Humanos en un an=C3=A1lisis realizado en 1998 expres=C3=B3 </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">lo siguiente: = = 88 "Hasta ahor= a no ha sido posible encontrar (=E2=80=A6) una f=C3=B3rmula que garantice l= a estabilidad y consolidaci=C3=B3n del sistema de &= #xa0;partidos, que res= ulte compatible con la garant=C3=ADa constitucional que tienen los ciudadan= os para ser votados para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular, sin tener q= ue hacerlo obligadamente bajo las siglas de alg=C3=BAn partido pol=C3=ADtic= o". 45. Sobre este mismo aspecto recomend=C3=B3 que se "(=E2=80=A6= ) adopten las medidas necesarias para que la reglamentaci=C3=B3n del derecho de votar y= ser votado contemple el acceso m=C3=A1s amplio y participativo <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> posible de los candidatos al proceso electoral, como elemento para la c= onsolidaci=C3=B3n de la democracia." ("Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humano= s, normativa, jurisprudencia y doctrina de los sistemas universal e interamericano)= ", Oficina Regional para Am=C3=A9rica Latina y el Caribe del Alto <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos", p=C3= =A1gs. 751, 756 y 757). 46. Para analizar la controversia, en cuanto a la posible v= iolaci=C3=B3n, por parte del =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C= =C3=B3digo Electoral, del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana = de Derechos Humanos de 1969, que es un Tratado Internacional aprobado por la Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, debe analizarse la relaci=C3=B3n entre el Derecho Internac= ional y el Derecho Interno. Sabido es, que, en determinados casos, <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">una disposici=C3= =B3n legal dictada por un Estado puede encontrarse en contraposici=C3=B3n c= on un Tratado <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">internacional, si= endo como es, adem=C3=A1s, una de las fuentes del Derecho Internacional. Es= aqu=C3=AD donde <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">se plantea cu= =C3=A1l es la norma que ha de ser aplicada en caso de conflicto. La controv= ersia gira en torno a si el Der= echo interno y el Derecho internacional se consideran dos sistemas jur=C3= =ADdicos diferentes, o si contr= ario a ello, existe un s=C3=B3lo sistema u orden jur=C3=ADdico. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = 47. Reviste singu= lar importancia el determinar la norma que debe aplicarse en caso de existi= r discre= pancia o contradicci=C3=B3n entre la norma interna de un Estado y la norma = internacional. Existen dos teor=C3=ADas para explicar esta situaci=C3=B3n, conocida= s como la teor=C3=ADa dualista y la teor=C3=ADa monista. Seg=C3=BAn el </sp= an> autor colombiano Enrique Gaviria Li=C3=A9vano, la teor=C3=ADa du= alista fue expuesta principalmente por = Heinrich Triepel = y Dionisio Anzilotti, y la misma sostiene que el Derecho interno y el Derec= ho internacional son dos sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos independien= tes, o sea, dos =C3=B3rdenes jur=C3=ADdicos separados, tanto en su origen como en s= u campo de aplicaci=C3=B3n; en virtud que, mientras el Derecho interno est= =C3=A1 destinado a reglar las r= elaciones de los individuos de un mismo Estado, el Derecho internacional, <= /span> <= /span>regula exclusivamente las relaci= ones entre Estados. Por su parte, seg=C3=BAn la Teor=C3=ADa monista, el Der= echo &= #xa0;i= nternacional y el Derecho interno forman un solo sistema jur=C3=ADdico con = dos modalidades: una que sostiene la supremac=C3=ADa del Derecho internacional sobr= e el Derecho interno, liderada por Hans Kelsen, y otra, que consagra la superiorida= d del Derecho interno sobre el Derecho internacional, expuesta por <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Georg Jellinek, (GAVIRIA LI=C3=89VANO, Enrique, "Derecho Internacion= al P=C3=BAblico", Editorial Temis, S.A., tercera edici=C3=B3n, Bogot=C3=A1-Colombia= , 1988, p=C3=A1gs. 12-13). 48. = No obstante lo anterior, consideramos, tal como afirma el Autor colombiano = Enrique Gaviria <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Li=C3=A9vano, q= ue no se puede afirmar la existencia de ordenes jur=C3=ADdicos separados e = independientes, ya que el Derec= ho interno y el internacional son interdependientes. La pr=C3=A1ctica demue= stra que hay una <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">relaci=C3=B3n = muy estrecha, de vasos comunicantes, entre ambos sistemas. Se dice que, un = Estado no puede <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">establecer un ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico interno violando las norma= s internacionales. De acuerdo con las consideraciones antes = expuestas, los Estados elaboran sus ordenamientos constitucionales y legale= s, teniendo presente la primac=C3=ADa del Derecho Internacio= nal. As=C3=AD lo confirma el Art=C3=ADculo 27 de la = Convenci= =C3=B3n de Viena de 1969 sobre el Derecho sobre de los Tratados, que se ref= iere al derecho interno y la observancia de los Tratados, el cual se=C3=B1ala que, = "una parte no podr=C3=A1 invocar las disposiciones de su derecho interno como justificaci=C3=B3n del inc= umplimiento de un tratado". 89 = ;49. La primac=C3=ADa del Derec= ho Internacional se evidencia igualmente en la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional d= e = 0;Panam= =C3=A1 al se=C3=B1alar el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la misma que, "La Rep=C3=BAbli= ca de Panam=C3=A1 acata las normas del = Derecho Internacional". Con base a lo an= terior, debe interpretarse el alcance del art=C3=ADculo 23 de <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humano= s, teniendo adem=C3=A1s en cuenta, el principio "pro homine", principio conforme al cual, al momento de in= terpretar una norma internacional (art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos) e= n relaci=C3=B3n con una norma nacional (=C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo = 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral), debe aplicarse la norma que mejor tutele lo= s derechos humanos de los individuos. En este mismo orden de ideas, ha de aplicarse= la norma "Pacta Sunt Servanda"= , o Principio de la Santidad de los Tratados, que establece que los Tratado= s internacionales = una vez ratif= icados deben cumplirse de buena fe por los Estados signatarios, tal como lo= consagra el <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">art=C3=ADculo 26 d= e la Convenci=C3=B3n de Viena de 1969 sobre el Derecho de los Tratados. </s= pan> </s= pan>50. Al apro= barse esta Convenci=C3=B3n, los Estados partes se comprometieron a respetar= los derechos y libertades reconocidos en dicha Convenci=C3= =B3n, y a garantizar el pleno ejercicio de los derechos en ella <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> contemplados. As=C3=AD lo indica el art=C3=ADculo 1, cuya redacci=C3=B3= n es la siguiente: "Art=C3=ADculo pr= imero. Obligaci=C3=B3n de respetar los derechos. 1. Los Estados Partes en e= sta Convenci=C3=B3n se comprometen a <= /p>respetar = los derechos y libertades reconocidos en ella y a garantizar su libre y ple= no ejercicio a toda persona que est=C3=A9 sujeta &#= xa0;a su jurisdicci=C3= =B3n=E2=80=A6" (Destaca el Pleno). = 51. Por consiguiente, siendo el= Derecho a elegir y ser elegido un derecho humano, al decir del art=C3=ADcu= lo &#x= a0;23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n ant= es citada, cualquier ley Nacional que regule materias semejantes, debe tene= r = 0;en cuenta lo dispuesto en est= e art=C3=ADculo. En caso contrario, como ha ocurrido con el =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">art=C3=ADculo 2= 57 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, tal norma resulta contraria a la Constituci= =C3=B3n Nacional, = particularmente, al art=C3=ADculo 4 de dicha Norma Suprema. As=C3= =AD lo ha considerado tambi=C3=A9n el funcionario </= span>del Minist= erio P=C3=BAblico, al solicitar que se declare que es inconstitucional el = =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo </= p>257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>52. Con fundament= o en las consideraciones expuestas, se concluye que se ha producido la tran= sgresi=C3=B3n constitucional alegada, y, por consiguiente, as=C3=AD ha de pronuncia= rse esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia. 53. En consecuencia, la Corte Suprema de J= usticia, PLENO, administrando justicia en nombre de la &= #xa0;R= ep=C3=BAblica y por autoridad de la Ley, DECLARA QUE ES INCONSTITUCIONAL el= =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>54. Notif=C3=ADquese. OYD=C3=89N ORTEGA DUR=C3= =81N GABRIEL E. FERN=C3=81NDEZ M. =E2=80=94 VICTOR L. BENAVIDES P. </spa= n>=E2=80=94 <= /span>HERN=C3=81N A. DE LE=C3=93N <= /p>BATISTA =E2=80=94 HARRY ALBERTO D=C3=8DAZ GONZ=C3= =81LEZ =E2=80=94 EFR=C3=89N C. TELLO C. =E2=80=94 LUIS MARIO = CARRASCO M. =E2=80=94 HARLEY J. MITCHELL D. =E2=80=94 ABEL AUGUSTO ZAMORAN= O = 0;YANIXSA Y. YUEN C. (Secretari= o) &#x= a0;90 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB/9JREFUeJztzrEJwgAUBcD3xdZOJ3ASR3EFG8EZ3MQt0jtNAhYSdAZF+QTuJrgE= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAA+LnqDgDNjsNuXXWq17ztrsBHavV4jvMlt8PUXQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAI= B/qe7AQuyTnJNsuiMs3j3JtTsBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOkN7v0MA5fjNVkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" = width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN </= span>1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 91 =E2=80=93 94 </span= > Contribuciones de la jurispru= dencia paname=C3=B1a a la pr=C3=A1ctica sobre el derecho humano de los candidatos de libre <= /span> postulaci=C3=B3n a = ser postulados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico: <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:18= pt; letter-spacing:normal">comentarios a la sentencia de 27 de noviembre de= 2014 Gianfranco Smith=EF=81=B9 = = *Autor para Correspondencia. E-= mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" styl= e=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gm= ail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">gianfranco.alberto.smith@gmail.com = </a>Recibido: 10 de julio de 2021 Aceptado: 15 de julio de 20= 21 ____________________________________________________ </span= > <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">I. INTRODUC= CI=C3=93N <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">El 27 de noviemb= re de 2014, el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia (=E2=80=98CSJ=E2=80=99) reso= lvi=C3=B3 la demanda de inconst= itucionalidad interpuesta por el Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal en contra del = =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del ar= t=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral1, cuyo = texto establec=C3=ADa que =E2=80=9CLos candidatos principales o suplentes = = por libre postu= laci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos=E2= =80=9D. Seg=C3=BAn el Dr. Bernal, el precitado p=C3=A1rrafo = deb=C3=ADa ser declarado inconstitucional por ser incompatible con ciertas = disposiciones constitucionales y convencionales, incluyendo el art=C3=ADculo 4 de l= a Constituci=C3=B3n2 y el 23(2) de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos (CADH)3</s= pan>. Todas estas violaciones fueron </spa= n>confirmadas por el Pleno de la CSJ, = mediante su fallo de 27 de noviembre de 20144. Este art=C3=ADculo </span= > </span= >analizar=C3=A1= el criterio de la CSJ y sus contribuciones a la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los= derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10.5pt">=EF=81=B9Licenciado en Derecho y Ciencias P= ol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Magna Cum Laude); Especialista en <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > Docencia= Superior (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Summa Cum Laude), Maestr=C3=ADa en Estudios Dipl= om=C3=A1ticos (Oxford University, en curso). = Profesor Adjunto de Derecho Internacional en la Facultad de Relaciones Inte= rnacionales de la Universidad del Caribe; Profesor Adjunto de Filosof=C3= =ADa del Derecho, Derechos Humanos y Derecho Internacional P=C3=BAblico </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">en= la Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua. Relator de Panam=C3=A1 para el= m=C3=B3dulo =E2=80=9CInternational Law in Domestic Courts= =E2=80=9D de Oxofr= d University Press. Cursos y seminarios especializados en Derecho Internaci= onal en la Academia de la Haya de Derechos Internacional y la Oficina de l= as Naciones Unidas en Ginebra. 1 Ley No 11 (10 de agosto de 198= 3), Por la cual se adopta el C=C3=B3digo Electoral de la Rep=C3=BAblica de = Panam=C3=A1. 2 Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica, Panam=C3=A1 (11 de octubre de 1972). 3 CONVENCI=C3=93N AM= ERICANA SOBRE DERECHOS HUMANOS, San Jos=C3=A9 (22 de noviembre de 1969). </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt">= 4 Sentencia de 27 de noviembre de 2014, Pleno de la Corte Suprema= de Justicia. 91 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4Wsq= yGekVdACAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPnFMB= zZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAID/WKqjAgLOEq3BAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />II. DERECHOS POL=C3=8DTICOS DE LOS CANDI= DATOS DE LIBRE POSTULACI=C3=93N LA CONSTITUCI=C3=93N La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de Panam=C3=A1 no contiene normas = espec=C3=ADficas que proh=C3=ADban la aprobaci=C3=B3n de leyes que restrinjan los derechos pol=C3=ADticos = de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser nominados por <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = un partido pol=C3=ADtico a un puesto de = elecci=C3=B3n popular. Sin embargo, como acertadamente indic=C3=B3 la CSJ <= /span> <= /span>en su dec= isi=C3=B3n de 27 de noviembre de 2014, los art=C3=ADculos 4 y 17 de la Cons= tituci=C3=B3n permiten expandir la protecci=C3=B3n de los d= erechos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, con arreglo a las norm= as del derecho internacional de los derechos humanos. En otr= as palabras, mediante estas disposiciones, el </span= >derecho intern= acional refuerza la protecci=C3=B3n otorgada por el derecho domestico a los= candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, estableciendo l=C3= =ADmites de esa forma a la capacidad del Estado de adoptar norma que </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">lesiones los d= erechos de dichos candidatos. E= l art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n establece que =E2=80=9CLa Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 acata las normas del Derecho International=E2=80=9D. Seg=C3= =BAn la CSJ, esta disposici=C3=B3n no solo consagra la supremac=C3=ADa del = derecho internacional sobre el derecho interno, sino que adem=C3=A1s reitera la nor= ma pacta sunt servanda codificada en el art=C3=ADculo </s= pan> 26 de la Co= nvenci=C3=B3n de Viena sobre el Derecho de los Tratados5<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. Consecuentem= ente, el Estado <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Paname=C3=B1o d= eb=C3=ADa valorar las normas internacionales aplicables antes de aprobar el= art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. Particularmente, deb=C3=ADa tomar en = consideraci=C3=B3n las limitaciones impuestas el art=C3=ADculo <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 23(2) de la CADH, re= lativas a los motivos para regular derechos pol=C3=ADticos. Si bien es cier= to, este art=C3=ADculo de la CA= DH permite reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos exclusiv= amente por motivos de edad, nac= ionalidad residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil o mental, o= condena, por juez competente, = o en proceso penal; no obstante, restringir la postulaci=C3=B3n de un candi= dato de libre <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">postulaci=C3=B3n por un partido pol=C3=ADtico es una restricci=C3=B3n= de =C3=ADndole pol=C3=ADtico que no se ajusta a las = ;excepci= ones permitidas por el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH. En consecuencia, des= conocer dicho art=C3=ADculo de la CADH, como efectivamente ocurri=C3=B3 al aprobar = el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, implica una violaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Const= ituci=C3=B3n. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Adicionalmente, a= l establecer que las garant=C3=ADas establecidas en la Constituci=C3=B3n so= n m=C3=ADnimas y no excluyentes sobre otras que incidan sobre los derechos fundamen= tales y la dignidad de la persona, el art=C3=ADculo 17 de la= Constituci=C3=B3n permite incorporar y aplicar directamente los derechos d= e la CADH en el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico interno para refo= rzar la protecci=C3=B3n de los derechos de los candidatos de libre <= span class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">postulaci=C3=B3n. Es decir, el hecho de que no exista una prohibici= =C3=B3n domestica para limitar los derechos <= /p>pol=C3=ADticos de candidatos de libre p= ostulaci=C3=B3n, no implica una ausencia de protecci=C3=B3n, ya que los </s= pan> </s= pan>derechos po= l=C3=ADticos establecidos en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH complementan= las garant=C3=ADas a favor de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >III. DERECHO POL=C3=8DTICOS DE LOS = CANDIDATOS DE LIBRE POSTULACI=C3=93N EN EL SISTEMA INTERAMERICANO Los derechos de los candidatos i= ndependientes (o de libre postulaci=C3=B3n) han sido tratados en dos casos = ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH)= . Primeramente, en el caso Yatana vs 5 CONVENCI=C3=93N DE VIENA SOBRE E= L DERECHO DE LOS TRATADOS, Viena (23 de mayo de 1969). </= span>92 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2= gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Nicaragua</span= >6, la Corte IDH confirm=C3=B3 que los derechos p= ol=C3=ADticos pueden regularse exclusivamente por </= span>los motivo= s establecidos en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH, sin que la restricci= =C3=B3n constituya una forma de discriminaci=C3=B3n. Es deci= r que, al regular los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, el Estado no solo debe basar= se en las excepciones permitidas por el art=C3=ADculo 23(2),= sino que tambi=C3=A9n debe ser lo menos restrictivo posible y la misma debe estar dirigida a satisfacer un inter=C3=A9s p=C3=BAblico. = De lo contrario, se estar=C3=ADa infringiendo </span= >igualmente el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de = la CADH. Adicionalmente, en este mismo caso, la Corte IDH determin=C3=B3 que no exi= ste ninguna disposici=C3=B3n en la CADH que limite la postu= laci=C3=B3n de candidatos a puestos de elecci=C3=B3n a trav=C3=A9s de parti= dos pol=C3=ADticos, por lo que destac=C3=B3 la importancia de otras formas de impul= sar candidaturas para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular7. Reiter=C3=B3, adem=C3=A1= s, que la Carta Democr=C3=A1tica Interamericana se=C3=B1ala que para la dem= ocracia es prioritario =E2=80=9Cel fortalecimiento de los partidos pol=C3=ADticos y= de otras organizaciones pol=C3=ADticas=E2=80=9D (Art=C3=ADculo 5)8. En segundo lugar, en el caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gu= tman vs M=C3=A9xico9, la Corte IDH conside= r=C3=B3 que tanto un sistema construido exclusivamente de pa= rtidos pol=C3=ADticos, como uno que admite candidaturas independientes </sp= an> son compatib= les con la CADH. Esta decisi=C3=B3n sobre cu=C3=A1l sistema rige en el Esta= do, seg=C3=BAn la Corte IDH, queda en manos de la Constituci=C3=B3n. IV. AN=C3=81LISIS= = Como fue mencionado, la = Constituci=C3=B3n no prev=C3=A9 una norma espec=C3=ADfica que proh=C3=ADba = expresamente <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">restringir los der= echos pol=C3=ADticos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, como efec= tivamente ocurri=C3=B3 tras la = aprobaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, el cual ex= clu=C3=ADa la posibilidad de que estos fueran nominados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico para un cargo de el= ecci=C3=B3n popular. Sin embargo, es importante recordar que Panam=C3=A1 es parte d= e la CADH, la cual tiene efectos vinculantes y prevalencia s= obre las dem=C3=A1s normas dom=C3=A9sticas, en virtud del art=C3=ADculo 4 d= e la Constituci=C3=B3n. Adicionalmente, el </= p>art=C3=ADculo 17 = de la Constituci=C3=B3n permite la incorporaci=C3=B3n directa de la CADH pa= ra complementar la protecci=C3=B3n domestica a favor de los candidatos independient= es, de forma que las autoridades domesticas quedan obligadas a aplicar los derechos= establecidas en la misma a favor de los candidatos = independientes. El fallo de la CSJ fue acertado al declarar qu= e el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo era inconstitucional por violar el art=C3=ADc= ulo &#= xa0;4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n.<= /span> <= /span>Esta violaci=C3=B3n ocurri=C3=B3 de manera indirecta, toda = vez que las restricciones a los candidatos de libre de post= ulaci=C3=B3n establecidas en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del Art=C3=ADculo = 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral no se ajustaban a los est=C3= =A1ndares del sistema interamericano de derechos humanos, fijados en </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">el art=C3=ADcu= lo 23(2) de la CADH. Seg=C3=BAn el razonamiento de la Corte IDH en el caso = Yatana vs Nicaragua, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">los motivos enu= merados en dicho art=C3=ADculo 23 de la CADH son exclusivos, por lo que cua= lquier intento <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt"= >6 CORTE INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANO= S: Caso Yatama vs. Nicaragua, sentencia de 23 de junio de 2005, Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, =C2= =B6206 (En adelante =E2=80=9CCaso Yatama vs. Nicaragua). </= span>7 Caso= Yatama vs Nicaragua, =C2=B6215. 8 CARTA DEMOCR=C3=81TICA INTER= AMERICANA, Lima (11 de septiembre de 2001). 9CORTE INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANOS: = Caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs. Estados Unidos <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Mexicanos, sentencia de 6 de= agosto de 2008, Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, = =C2=B6204 (En adelante Caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs. M=C3=A9xico) </span= > 93 de regular los derechos p= ol=C3=ADticos por motivos distintos a los permitidos en dicho art=C3=ADculo= , constituir=C3=ADa una clara violaci=C3=B3n a la CADH, y en= consecuencia al art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n. Adem=C3=A1s, como= fue men= cionado, toda regulaci=C3=B3n de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos debe hacerse d= e manera menos restrictiva posible, pues de lo contrario podr=C3=ADa incurrirse igu= almente en una violaci=C3=B3n del Art=C3=ADculo 23 de la &= #xa0;CADH. No existe evidenci= a de las motivaciones que indujeron la aprobaci=C3=B3n del =C3=BAltimo p=C3= =A1rrafo del <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, pero es muy improbable qu= e exista una justificaci=C3=B3n v=C3=A1lida y que no = ;impliqu= e una pol=C3=ADtica discriminatoria en perjuicio de los candidatos de libre= postulaci=C3=B3n. El razonamiento de la CSJ tambi=C3=A9n se alinea con caso </span= >Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs M=C3=A9xico, en el cual la Corte </sp= an> </sp= an>IDH determin=C3=B3 que la CADH es c= ompatible tanto con un sistema exclusivamente de partidos pol=C3=ADticos, como con = uno mixto que permite las candidaturas independientes. Efectivamente, la </= span> Constituci=C3=B3n Paname=C3=B1a reconoce un sistema mixto a tr= av=C3=A9s del art=C3=ADculo 138, el cual declara que los &= #xa0;partidos pol=C3=ADticos = expresan el pluralismo pol=C3=ADtico sin perjuicio de las postulaciones lib= res. En = consecuencia, la protecci=C3=B3n garantizada en la CADH a los candidatos af= iliados a partidos pol=C3=ADticos es igualmente extensible a los candidatos indepen= dientes. V. CONCLUSIONES <= /span>&#= xa0;El f= allo del Pleno de la CSJ de 27 de noviembre de 2014 representa una contribu= ci=C3=B3n importante a la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los= candidatos independientes. Como ha sido reiterado a lo largo de este an=C3=A1lisis, el hecho de que la Co= nstituci=C3=B3n no contenga disposiciones especiales que protejan los derechos humanos de los candidatos i= ndependientes, no significa que estos queden desamparados. Mediante la aplicaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4= y el 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n, la CSJ acertadamente expandi=C3=B3 la protecci= =C3=B3n que otorga el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico paname=C3=B1o para complem= entarlo con los derechos establecidos en la CADH, el cual i= ncluye el derecho a ser elegidos sin m=C3=A1s limitaciones que <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> las impuestas en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la misma convenci=C3=B3n. La = CSJ atinadamente determin=C3=B3 que al = aprobar el =C3=BA= ltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, se infr= ingi=C3=B3 el compromiso de acatar las normas del derecho internacional previsto en= el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n, toda vez que el mismo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>no se ajustaba a= los est=C3=A1ndares derechos humanos del sistema interamericano. En consec= uencia, la decisi=C3=B3n de la CSJ de 27 de noviembre de 2014 es compatible con los= est=C3=A1ndares de derechos humanos del sistema interamericano. 94 IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 &= #xa0;pp. 95 <= /span>=E2=80=93 97 Revista especializada semestral <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:= 16pt; letter-spacing:normal"> "Iustitia et Pulchritudo" </s= pan>Instrucciones= para publicaci=C3=B3n 1. Definici=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">La revista "Iustit= ia et Pulchritudo" (ISSN 1607-4319<= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">), es una publicaci=C3=B3n peri=C3=B3dica semestral (dos <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">n=C3=BAmeros regu= lares, anualmente) publicada por la Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas de la <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, de Panam=C3= =A1. Esta publicaci=C3=B3n peri=C3=B3dica es especializada, = centrada en las disciplinas de las ciencias jur=C3=ADdicas d= elimitadas dentro del campo de conocimiento 0056 (Derecho), de la Clasifica= ci=C3=B3n UNESCO: Nomenclatura para los Campos de las Cienci= as y las Tecnolog=C3=ADas: 5601, 5602, 563, 5604, 5605 y 5699. <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> Entre estas disciplinas se cuentan: teor=C3=ADa del derecho, filosof=C3= =ADa del derecho, filosof=C3=ADa pol=C3=ADtica, derecho &= #xa0;comparado, derecho civil= , derecho penal y procesal, derecho pol=C3=ADtico, derecho constitucional, = derecho mercantil, derecho trib= utario, derecho laboral, derecho administrativo, derecho internacional, =C3= =A9tica jur=C3=ADdica, derecho = ambiental, derecho registral, derecho del consumidor, derecho inform=C3=A1t= ico, derecho <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">comercial, derecho romano, historia del derecho, sociolog=C3=ADa del d= erecho, an=C3=A1lisis econ=C3=B3mico del = derecho, gobierno, as=C3=AD como cualqui= er disciplina o interdisciplina af=C3=ADn. As=C3=AD mismo, aquellas referid= as a &= #xa0;c= ampo de conocimiento 0059 (Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas). = ;Iustitia e Puchritudo est=C3= =A1 abierta al personal docente e investigativo de la Universidad Cat=C3=B3= lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua y acepta gustosamente colaboraciones de investigad= ores provenientes de otros Centros de Educaci=C3=B3n Superio= r, Entidades Gubernamentales o Institutos de Investigaci=C3=B3n nacionales = o extran= jeros. 2. Pol=C3=ADtica</s= pan> = 0;Editorial. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">2.1.T</sp= an>odos los art=C3=ADculos ser=C3=A1n responsabilidad exclusiva d= e los autores. Con el fin de prevenir el fraude </sp= an>o el plagio, la Universidad Cat=C3= =B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua podr=C3=A1 verificar datos sobre la </s= pan> </s= pan>trayectoria cient=C3=ADfica de los= autores y, sobre esta base, decidir sobre su publicaci=C3=B3n definitiva. = = 2.2.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:0= .05pt">Existir=C3=A1n dos tipos de art=C3=ADculos, seg=C3=BAn su origen: colabora= ciones regulares enviadas por los autores y colaboraciones solicitadas por el Editor. En el primer caso, l= os trabajos ser=C3=A1n enviados a revisi=C3=B3n por parte de evaluadores externos, = libremente seleccionados por el Editor, quienes de manera = i= mparcial y an=C3=B3nima aprobar=C3=A1n, recomendar=C3=A1n cambios o rechaza= r=C3=A1n la publicaci=C3=B3n del trabajo = 95= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B/pJREFUeJzt2LEJAkEARNFZFMHU5Eqx9SvJyFQQ5K4KGdh9r4If/wQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACWNNoBML/= jkeTWrqDinYxvOwKYz7UdAAt4JtnaEVTsSV7tCGA+Dhz83XFPcmlXUPFJxq8dAQAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAKzgBO+yB/X4WUtfAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height= =3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />remitido. En el segundo caso, ser= =C3=A1 prerrogativa final del Editor publicar o no la colaboraci=C3=B3n </s= pan> </s= pan>solicitada. 2.3.Los trabajos a ser considerados para publicaci=C3=B3n deber=C3=A1n ser a= bsolutamente in=C3=A9ditos. Los mismos = deber=C3=A1n ser = enviados v=C3=ADa correo ordinario o electr=C3=B3nico, a la siguiente direc= ci=C3=B3n: Director Editor </p= >Revista Iustitia et Pulchritudo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas Universidad Cat=C3=B3l= ica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua (USMA) Apartado 0819-8300 Panam=C3=A1, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> O por email a</span= ><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usm= a.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa <= /span></a>2.4.= Los art=C3=ADculos enviados ser=C3=A1n publicad= os Ad Honorem y la revista retribuir=C3=A1 su aporte otorgando <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> gratuitamente a cada= colaborador un n=C3=BAmero determinado de copias de la publicaci=C3=B3n. <= /span> <= /span>2.5.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">La Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua conservar=C3=A1 l= os derechos de autor sobre el material impreso en la edici=C3=B3n de la que se tr= ate. El autor mantendr=C3=A1 sus derechos de autor sobre ediciones <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">sucesivas. </spa= n> </spa= n>2.6.No= se devolver=C3=A1n colaboraciones no solicitadas por el Editor. <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">3. Especifica= ciones T=C3=A9cnicas para las Colaboraciones. </s= pan> 3.1</s= pan>.La revista publicar=C3=A1= varios tipos de colaboraciones: 3.1.1.Ponencias o res=C3=BAmenes de ponencias pres= entadas en congresos especializados o profesionales. 3.1.2.T= rabajos de investigaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica (bibliogr=C3=A1fica, hermen=C3= =A9utica o socio-jur=C3=ADdica). 3.1.3.Jurisprudencia. </spa= n>3.1.4.An=C3=A1lisis de Jurisprudenci= a. &#x= a0;3.1.5.Art=C3=ADculos de Opin= i=C3=B3n (fundamentada con referencias) sobre asuntos de naturaleza = = jur=C3=ADdica. 3.1.6.Cartas al Editor. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">3.2<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:1.3= 5pt">.Los cuatro primeros tipos de colab= oraciones arriba detalladas (3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3 y 3.1.4) se redactar=C3=A1n dirigi= das a un p=C3=BAblico especializado, su extensi=C3=B3n m=C3=A1xima ordinari= a ser=C3=A1 de treinta (30) cuartillas, escritas a espacio sencillo, tipos Garamond= o Times New Roman, doce (12) puntos. 96 </sp= an> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnA= AAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJRE= FUeJztzrEJgEAUBbB3YGPlCC7juA5m5QA2uoIcyD8wmSAJAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwEutOkCve06yVC9gMFf= SzuoEwNem6gDd1iRbdQIGcyTZqxMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC/8gD46Q= T9Q5SGiwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />3.3.Los trabajos de los do= s =C3=BAltimos tipos (3.1.5 y 3.1.6) se redactar=C3=A1n dirigidas a un p=C3= =BAblico general, su extensi=C3= =B3n m=C3=A1xima ordinaria ser=C3=A1 de cinco (5) cuartillas, escritas a es= pacio sencillo, tipos Garamond = o Times New Roman, doce (12) puntos. 3.4.Todos los trabajos deber=C3=A1n tener= un t=C3=ADtulo claramente identificado. Adjunto al t=C3=ADtulo ir=C3=A1n e= l nombre del o los autores, as=C3=AD como su filiaci=C3=B3n institucional y su dire= cci=C3=B3n postal y electr=C3=B3nica. El primer </sp= an>autor listad= o ser=C3=A1 considerado como Autor Principal y a =C3=A9l ser=C3=A1 dirigida= cualquier comunicaci=C3=B3n referente al trabajo. Toda esta= informaci=C3=B3n deber=C3=A1 concentrarse en una misma p=C3=A1gina, exclus= iva para estos fines. As=C3=AD mismo, los cuatro primeros ti= pos de colaboraciones arriba detalladas (3.1.1, </sp= an>3.1.2, 3.1.3 y 3.1.4) deber=C3=A1n = contar con, al menos, cinco referencias bibliogr=C3=A1ficas, en cada caso. = = 3.5.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-= 0.05pt">Para todos los tipos de escrito: =E2=88=92 Deber=C3=A1n usarse las unidades= del Sistema Internacional de medidas, obligatoriamente. =E2=88=92 </sp= an>Las referencias bibliogr=C3=A1ficas deber=C3=A1n listarse seg= =C3=BAn las normas editoriales de la Revista Chilena = ;de Derecho de la Pontificia Un= iversidad Cat=C3=B3lica de Chile. Puede encontrar gu=C3=ADa= s en <a href=3D"http://ojs.uc.cl/index.php/Rchd/Norm2" target=3D"_blan= k" style=3D"text-decoration:none">http://ojs.uc.cl/index.php/Rchd/Norm2 <= /span> </a>= =E2=88=92 Se pide a cada autor principal que provea una tra= ducci=C3=B3n, al idioma ingl=C3=A9s, del resumen ejecutivo (abstract) de su escrito. En caso de no poder p= roveerse, el Director-Editor proceder=C3=A1 a efectuar la traducci=C3=B3n de dicho resumen. 3.6. Los textos enviados para ser considerado= s para publicaci=C3=B3n, deber=C3=A1n ser remitidos en forma de <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = documentos editab= les, escritos usando el procesador de palabra Microsoft Word. 4. Advertencia / Disclaimer <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">Las opiniones expresadas en art=C3=ADculos que aparezcan impresos den= tro de esta publicaci=C3=B3n son de responsabilidad exclusiv= a de los autores correspondientes. No reflejan las opiniones o puntos de vi= sta de l= a comunidad de la USMA (la Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa la An= tigua) ni de sus directivos, personal administrativo, docente o educando. Las denom= inaciones empleadas en esta publicaci=C3=B3n y la </= span>presentaci= =C3=B3n de los datos que contengan los trabajos que aqu=C3=AD se publiquen,= no implican la expresi=C3=B3n de juicio alguno por parte de la USMA ni de los mi= embros de su comunidad acad=C3=A9mica sobre la condici=C3=B3n de cualquier persona natural o jur=C3=ADdica= y la USMA se exime completamente de cualquier responsabilidad legal derivada. The views expressed in articles tha= t appear in print within this publication are of the sole responsibility </= span> of the respective authors. They do not reflect the opinions or= views of the community of USMA (Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica = Santa Mar=C3=ADa la Antigua) nor from its directors, staff, faculty or stud= ent body. The designations employed and the presentation of data contained within w= ritten works published here do = not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the USMA = or members of <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">its academic comm= unity on the status of any natural or legal person, therefore USMA complete= ly &#x= a0;rejects and disclaims any de= rived legal liability. 97 </sp= an></div></div></body></html> --=boundary.Aspose.Words=-- Content-Disposition: inline; filename="times.ttf" Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64 Content-Location: times.ttf AAEAAAANAIAAAwBQT1MvMhdwWHYAAADcAAAAYGNtYXD8VpvqAAABPAAABARjdnQgHWQC1wAABUAA ABCEZnBnbW1ZG1MAABXEAAAKWWdseWZDf0RrAAAgIAAA21ZoZWFkiZnDvgAA+3gAAAA2aGhlYRNN CJgAAPuwAAAAJGhtdHgQHh2UAAD71AAAAgBsb2NhAD+N2gAA/dQAAAIEbWF4cAeTCLUAAP/YAAAA IG5hbWXKudJCAAD/+AAAKe9wb3N0/yQAZAABKegAAAAgcHJlcLMykpEAASoIAAAPkwAEAzUBkAAF 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HAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:= absolute" />Vol 2. No 2, 2021 En este n=C3=BAmero art=C3=ADculos de: </p= >Mar=C3=ADa Helena Car= bonell; Hugo Wood; Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez; Carlos E. W= effe; Corte Suprema de Justicia, Magistrado Ponente Oyd=C3= =A9n Ortega Dur=C3=A1n; Gianfranco Smith = ;<img src=3D"data:ima= ge/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIf= AhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAIABJREFUeJzs3WuMpNl5H/b/ed+q6vt0T8/9vju7= O1zuMuJFpERKpCUrQXSNJRuSZScOHNlIAtj+lgCGECAIHANBADtIkMBSYkSBA0UQHMWxHMdy7ES= 2LpRJihLv5JLLvc7Mzr17+t5dl/fkQ/UMlytKThByZhX9fpjqqnq7qvqd+lD41znneU4CAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMAfYuVxnwDw/2+11nNJnkrSfHNecZx= xxg9uppck6U2P9d78uN70AXnLsbceOjzc+/on/3+1k+QLpZTdb+aLAjzwTf3EAniryWTyr7dt+x= 8nmf3mvGIvTUpSk9I8+A5a0qZNurc8tLRfu10Pr5okpUwPHF6l5pv9dfbLSf79w2uAbzoBDviWK= qXM11pPl1K+KQGu1ppa2tTU6ZBeffCHktT6MJM9uP+1Ow9PKElNrQ+OfvMnImqt90ajUf+b/sIA= hwQ44A+NWqfDZXU8Sts2qekyHu2n12uS1OzvbWd3ZyuTOk4pX0t2TWkzmJnLwvxCavopvUFqV1N= 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABmAlNrkLPAeZATAAAAAElFTkSuQ= mCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>Iustitia et Pulchritudo Revista Especializada en Ciencias Jur=C3=ADdicas, Forenses y Pol=C3= =ADticas de la Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADti= cas de la Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua = (USMA) ISSN 1607-4319 Segunda =C3=89poca; Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero 2 (= Julio-Diciembre de 2021) Publicaci=C3=B3n semestral </span= >_____________________________________= _________________________________________ Consejo Cient=C3=ADf= ico: Prof. Jorge Kam (Vicerre= ctor Acad=C3=A9mico, Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt= "> Antigua= ), Prof. Ana Matilde G=C3=B3mez R. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= (Decana, Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas, </= span>Universidad Cat= =C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua), Dr. = Carlos Guevara Mann (Director, Programa de= M.Sc. en Rel. Intern., Florida State University), <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:1= 1pt">Dr. Rigoberto Gonzalez (Procurador Ge= neral de la Administraci=C3=B3n, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1), <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:normal"> Dra. Nelva Ara=C3=BAz, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= (Investigadora, Centro Internacional de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Sociales)= , = Dra. Carla Pousa (Profesora, Florida State University), <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:1= 1pt; letter-spacing:normal">Prof. Salvador S=C3=A1nchez (Directo= r, Instituto de Estudios Democr=C3=A1ticos del Tribunal Electoral), = Dra. Idania Perigault (Jefa del Departament= o de =C3=89tica y Gesti=C3=B3n P=C3=BAblica, Procuradur=C3=ADa General de <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">= la Administraci=C3=B3n, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1), </= span>Dr. Jorge Ed= uardo Ritter (Ex Canciller, Ex Ministro de Gobierno y Justicia, d= e Trabajo y del Canal de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam= =C3=A1), Prof. Claire N= evache (Investigadora Asociada, Centro Internacional de Estudios = Pol=C3=ADticos y Sociales), Dra. Ana S=C3=A1nchez =E2=80=A0 (Miembro del Comit= =C3=A9 de Asesor de la Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial de la Salud). <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">&#= xa0;Equipo= Editorial: Prof. Alonso E. Illueca (Dire= ctor-Editor) Lic. Andr=C3=A9s Beck (Edito= r Asociado Ad Hoc) Lic. Juan Jos=C3=A9 Crespo (Editor Asociado A= d Hoc) Lic. Gloria Correa Polo (Editora Asociada Ad Hoc) = <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">_________________= ________________________________________________________ Direc= ci=C3=B3n postal: <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Facultad de Derecho y= Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (c/o Prof. Alonso E. Illueca, Director-Editor, Revista Ius= titia et Pulchritudo) Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa la Antigua = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Apdo. postal 0819-08550 Panam=C3=A1, Rep=C3=BAblica= de Panam=C3=A1 Tel=C3=A9fono (507) 269-1333 / 230-8265 / 2= 30-8235 / Correo ele<a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D= "_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">ctr=C3=B3nico: </a><a href= =3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-dec= oration:none">revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa <= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal; color:#0563c1"> </a>________________________________________________________________________= _ = 0;Impreso en Pa= nam=C3=A1, Ciudad de Panam=C3=A1. 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAD4/9uDAxIAAAAAQf9f9yNUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAO4CMgKZ5HfCONAAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D= "624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO Segunda =C3=89poc= a Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero 2 (Julio-= Diciembre de 2021) <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">___________________________= __________________________________________________________ = =C3=8DNDIC= E ___________________________________________________________________= __________________ Palabras del Director - Editor...................= ...........................................................................= ......................02 C= onferencias <= span class=3D"stl42" style=3D"letter-spacing:normal">=E2=80=A2 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">Dra. Mar=C3= =ADa Helena Carbonell: Infodemia y Pandemia: caldo de cultivo para el COVID en </= span> </= span>el marco de los estados de excepc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2= =80=A6=E2=80=A6..=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A604 =E2=80=A2 Prof. Hugo Wood: Legislative Malapportionme= nt and Disproportionality: reforms to improve Panama=E2=80=99s democratic governanc= e=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6..=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6=E2=80= =A6.........=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...=E2=80= =A6.10= = ;Investigaci=C3=B3n </span= > <= /span>=E2=80=A2 Lic. Ana= Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez: Interpreting the Justiciability of GATT=E2=80=99s Article XXI= : = 0;Security Exceptions=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6....=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80= =A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.=E2=80= =A6=E2=80=A616 =E2=80=A2 Dr. Carlos E. Weffe= : Pano= r=C3=A1mica general del sistema sancionador tributario aplicable al = = impuesto sobre la renta en Guatemala= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2= =80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6....= =E2=80=A6....=E2=80=A6...33 Jurisprudencia =E2=80=A2 Corte Suprema de Justicia de la = Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1; Magistrado Ponente Oyd=C3=A9n <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spaci= ng:normal">Ortega Dur=C3=A1n: Acci=C3=B3n de Inconstitucio= nalidad presentada por el Dr. Miguel Antonio = Bernal contra e= l =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 de la ley 60 de 29 de dici= embre de 2006, =E2=80=9CQue reforma el C=C3=B3digo Electoral=E2=80=9D<span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">, Entrada No. 647-08=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6= =E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">.78 An=C3=A1li= sis de Jurisprudencia =E2=80=A2 Prof. Gianfranco S= mith: Contribuciones de la jurisprudencia paname=C3= =B1a a la pr=C3=A1ctica sobre el derecho hum= ano de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser postulados por un </s= pan> partido pol=C3=ADtico: Comentarios a la sentencia= de 27 de noviembre de 2014=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6...</= span>=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6=E2=80=A6.9= 1 1<= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 02 =E2=80=93 03 _____________________________________________________________= ________________________ Palabras del Director =E2=80=93 Prefacio El Volumen 2, N=C3=BAmero= 2 de la Revista Iustitia et Pulchritudo presenta una ser= ie de investigaciones acad=C3=A9micas y conferencias magistr= ales sobre la pr=C3=A1ctica legal paname=C3=B1a e internacional. Tambi=C3= =A9n, como un aporte particular, se incluye una secci=C3=B3n= de jurisprudencia, la cual incluye la transcripci=C3=B3n de un fallo relevante de la Corte Suprema de Justicia de la Rep=C3=BAblica de= Panam=C3=A1, acompa=C3=B1ado de su respectivo an=C3=A1lisis. La revista inicia con una c= onferencia magistral de la Dra. Mar=C3=ADa Helena Carbonell de la Escuela d= e Derech= o y Justicia del Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales del Ecuador sobre l= a infodemia en medio de la pand= emia, en la cual analiza como las tecnolog=C3=ADas de la informaci=C3=B3n y= comunicaci=C3=B3n y las redes sociales han contribuido a una sobreabundancia de in= formaci=C3=B3n y de noticias falsas. La Dra. Carbonell tambi=C3=A9n nos explica las tres (= 3) estrategias principales a las que los Estados tiene acceso para hacer </= span> frente a los llamados =E2=80=9Cfake news=E2=80=9D, a saber: (1= ) la criminalizaci=C3=B3n de la propagaci=C3=B3n de noticias falsas a </spa= n> = trav=C3=A9s d= el derecho penal, (2) la utilizaci=C3=B3n de medidas administrativas para l= a creaci=C3=B3n de =C3=B3rganos encargados de combatir la desinformaci=C3=B3n, y (3) la adopci=C3=B3n de a= cuerdos con empresas privadas o con entidades de sociedad civil para verificar la v= eracidad de la informaci=C3=B3n compartida en las redes sociales <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">o el internet. En la implementaci=C3=B3n de cada una de estas estrateg= ias, tal y como lo explica la Dra. Carbonell, se deben incor= porar los est=C3=A1ndares internacionales de derechos humanos, en particula= r aquellos relativos a la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. En otr= a conferencia, el Prof. Hugo Wood N=C3=BA=C3=B1ez </= span>reflexiona sobre la realidad del = sistema electoral paname=C3=B1o y su inefectiva distribuci=C3=B3n y = = desproporcional= idad. En tal sentido, el Prof. Wood desarrolla estos conceptos a la luz de = los resultados de las elecciones generales de 2019 y propone aumentar el tama=C3= =B1o de los distritos electorales para resolver las distorsiones del sistema paname=C3=B1o. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">En el inter=C3=A9s de plantear un ejercicio= de derecho comparado, este n=C3=BAmero de la revista recoge una <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >investigaci=C3=B3n acad=C3=A9mica sobre = el sistema sancionador tributario aplicable al impuesto sobre la renta </sp= an> </sp= an>en Guatemala, en momentos en los qu= e esta tem=C3=A1tica es objeto de amplia discusi=C3=B3n en nuestro pa=C3=AD= s. &#x= a0;Gracias a los esfuerzos del = Dr. Camilo Vald=C3=A9s, profesor de nuestra Facultad de Derecho, el Dr. Car= los &#= xa0;Weffe, Investigador Asociad= o Senior del International Bureau of Fiscal Documen= tation y docente en el <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">M=C3=A1ster Avanzado de Tributaci=C3=B3n Internacional de la Unive= rsidad de =C3=81msterdam, ha publicado en este </spa= n>n=C3=BAmero d= e la revista una investigaci=C3=B3n minuciosa e in=C3=A9dita que sin duda a= lguna enriquecer=C3=A1 el debate sobre el sistema sancionador tributario en el foro= nacional. En la secci=C3=B3n de art=C3=ADculos de investigaci=C3=B3n tambi=C3=A9n = se incluye el trabajo de la Lic. Ana Carolina </span= >Rodr=C3=ADguez= el cual analiza la excepci=C3=B3n de seguridad nacional contenida en el ar= t=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio (GATT). En= su an=C3=A1lisis, Rodr=C3=ADguez nos relata como la doctrina, la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los Estados en la= pr=C3=A1ctica y la jurisprudencia internacional, en particular <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = la del mecanismo = de soluci=C3=B3n de controversias de la Organizaci=C3=B3n Mundial de Comerc= io, han desarrollado el alcance y contenido de esta excepci= =C3=B3n. 2<= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Esta edici=C3=B3n de la revista tambi=C3=A9n ofrece una secci=C3= =B3n de jurisprudencia en donde se recoge el fallo de = 0;la Corte Suprema de Justicia = relativo a la acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad presentada por el Dr. Mig= uel &#= xa0;Anto= nio Bernal contra el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C= =C3=B3digo Electoral. En la secci=C3=B3n = subsiguiente, el Prof. Gianfranco Smith = analiza el fallo en cuesti=C3=B3n y nos ofrece algunas consideraciones sobre el d= erecho humano de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser postulados = por un p= artido pol=C3=ADtico. Para culm= inar, reconozco la asistencia brindada y el esfuerzo realizado por la Facul= tad de Derecho y <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Ciencias Pol= =C3=ADticas, en particular el de la Se=C3=B1ora Decana Ana Matilde G=C3=B3m= ez Ruiloba y de la Directora de= Escuela, Magaly Castillo. As=C3=AD mismo agradecemos el apoyo del Se=C3=B1= or Rector Profesor Francisco Blanco y del Se=C3=B1or Vicerrector Acad=C3=A9mico Pro= fesor Jorge Kam, por dotar de continuidad a este </s= pan>importante y tan necesario proyect= o acad=C3=A9mico. Igualmente, celebro las contribuciones de= mis colegas y editores asociados, Andr=C3=A9s Beck, Juan Jos=C3=A9 Crespo y Gloria= Correa cuyo trabajo es fundamental y es apreciado grandemente. = Profesor Alonso E. Illue= ca, LL.M. Director <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">3<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAA= ANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD= 6fLggAACBxJREFUeJztzr0NQQEUBtDv+U0oRG8AUxhDZxIL2MUEFjCHUiEhGpJHorKCS5wzwUkA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD+T1MdAIqtduNuf7jIszOqrsBb08vlcT3us13eqi/wjXr= VAaDYfdY+h6dDP82gugJvbZtbpudH9QMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+GdNdeBHz= JNskkyqI/y8fZJ1dQIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+= 7AXZrxTb/s7KiQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (IS= SN = 0;1607= -4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio -= Diciembre 2021 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">pp. 04 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </sp= an>09 = = ______________________= _______________________________________________________________ <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt">&= #xa0;Inf= odemia y pandemia: caldo de cultivo para el COVID en el &#x= a0;marco de los estados de excepci=C3=B3n=EF=80=AA =EF=81=B9Dra. Mar=C3=ADa Helena Carbonell </sp= an> <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">*Autor para Co= rrespondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.= com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a hre= f=3D"mailto:maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">maria.helena.carbonell@gmail.com </s= pan></a>Recibid= o: 23 de junio de 2021 Aceptado: 1 de julio de 2021 _________________________________________= ___________ Resumen: La present= e conferencia aborda la relaci=C3=B3n entre la pandemia del COVID-19, la in= fodemia que esta ha producido, = y las posibles repercusiones en la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Para ello, s= e desarrolla el concepto de lib= ertad de expresi=C3=B3n y su relaci=C3=B3n con el Estado democr=C3=A1tico. = Dentro de este marco, se hace referencia a la crisis multidisciplinaria que la pand= emia ha ocasionado. Y, concretamente, a la </= p>propagaci=C3=B3n de fake news = que han dado = como resultado una infodemia. Palabras clave: Pandem= ia, infodemia, libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, fake ne= ws, de= rechos humanos. <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Abstract: This conference addresses the relationship between the = COVID-19 pandemic, the infodemic it has produced, and its possible repercussions on free speech. To this = end, the concept of free speech and its relationship with democratic governance is = considered. In doing so, it incorporates the = multidisciplina= ry crisis that the pandemic has caused, focusing, specifically, in the spre= ad of fake news in the context of an infodemic. Keywords: Pandemic, infodemic, free speech, fake news, human ri= ghts =EF=80=AA= Esta ponencia se desarroll=C3=B3 en el marco de la presentaci= =C3=B3n de la investigaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=9CLa resistencia del Estado democr= =C3=A1tico de derecho en Am=C3=A9rica Latina frente a la pandemia del COVI= D19. Un enfoque desde el ius commune=E2=80=9D de autor=C3=ADa de Armin </sp= an> von= Bogdandy, Jes=C3=BAs Mar=C3=ADa Casal y Mariela Morales Antoniazzi. Este e= vento se llev=C3=B3 a cabo el 15 de enero de 2021 de </span= >manera virtual debido= a las restricciones causadas por el Covid-19. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:9.5pt">=EF=81=B9Abogada graduada de la Pontificia Uni= versidad Cat=C3=B3lica del Ecuador. M=C3=A1ster en Derecho Internacional Hu= manitario por la Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Huma= n Rights. Doctora en Derecho por la Universidad = Andina Sim=C3=B3n Bol=C3= =ADvar. Docente de la Escuela de Derechos y Justicia del Instituto de Altos= Estudios Nacionales. Consultora. L=C3=ADneas de investigaci=C3=B3n: der= echos humanos; Derecho Internacional P=C3=BAblico; g=C3=A9nero; sistemas in= ternacionales de protecci=C3=B3n de derechos; Derecho Internacional Humani= tario; refugio y movilidad. 4<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoC= AYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACN1JREFUeJzt= 1jFqFAEcxeE3m8muKAiiiBBsLSJWaQXxAJbaSKocxL2GjaSzSGOpNh7B2sLGSpHYaNAkOzO2Cmk= Cif+Z+H0n+BWveAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwGg11QETsZHkaZLL1SFM3ockL6sjAJi2tjpgIg6TfEpyqTq= EyftSHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAp9FUB8BobL+5Mp/PH1VnwJ+Ou= rzK7sNf1R3AuLTVATAaa/Oub/K5OgP+cvC1r04AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBxa6oDGKPlbL79YLNf5EZ1CfDvrbr+KD/232fvyc/qFuBk= bXUAY/RsOMrbg6zm9gH/o6E5Tu521RkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAXTVMdAJzC1vP19X= t3tqoz4DwcZ7af3Xcfk2Vf3QJj11YHAKdw8/asX8ut6gw4F93Q5fFmk73qEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC68pjoAmLwmO6+vpVtcrQ6B= M7PWDxkW3/Li/vfqFDhJWx0ATN2ySTe73rbZqC6BMzOkX60OV0kcOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAADgwvoNxCRBBjiZSLgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808= " alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Esta presentaci= =C3=B3n aborda la relaci=C3=B3n entre la epidemia, la infodemia y la libert= ad de expresi=C3=B3n en el marco de las democracias latinoam= ericanas. Como punto de partida, es preciso recordar que uno de <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> los pilares fundame= ntales de los Estados democr=C3=A1ticos es la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. V= arios organismos <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">internacionale= s, como la Organizaci=C3=B3n de Estados Americanos (OEA) y la Corte Interam= ericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH) han reconocido el rol central de la liberta= d de expresi=C3=B3n en las sociedades democr=C3=A1ticas, especialmente en relaci=C3= =B3n con el respeto de los derechos humanos. La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, en pala= bras de la CIDH es un pilar de la democracia desde su doble dimensi=C3=B3n:= la individual y la colectiva. La primera incluye el poder b= uscar y compartir informaci=C3=B3n. La segunda, </sp= an>en lo que re= specta a la actuaci=C3=B3n del poder p=C3=BAblico se relaciona con la publi= cidad y la transparencia que debe regir su comportamiento. A pesar de lo anterior, hay que reconocer que el ejerci= cio de la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n tiene ciertos l=C3=ADmites. Estos l=C3=ADmites= , sin embargo, no son exclusivos a la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, sino que = varios derechos prev=C3=A9n la posibilidad de que su ejercic= io sea restringido en situaciones excepcionales. </s= pan>Actualmente, debido a su importanc= ia para la rendici=C3=B3n de cuentas y la transparencia, la libertad de </s= pan> </s= pan>expresi=C3= =B3n se est=C3=A1 convirtiendo, como bien recogen los autores, en uno de lo= s derechos cuyo ejercicio no deber=C3=ADa ser susceptible de suspensi=C3=B3n, inclu= so durante estados de excepci=C3=B3n. Los estados de excepci=C3=B3n se originan por= momentos cr=C3=ADticos de una sociedad y, en palabras de los autores, abre= n un par= =C3=A9ntesis en la legalidad. En consecuencia, dejan el manejo de la crisis= al buen juicio de los gobiernos de turno. Sin embargo, esta excepcionalidad no es absoluta. El Derecho Co= nstitucional, as=C3=AD como el Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humanos, limit= a esta potestad. Para profundizar en el tema, </span= >se puede revis= ar la jurisprudencia de la Corte IDH sobre la limitaci=C3=B3n del ejercicio= de los derechos.1 <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, en el marco de una sociedad democr=C3= =A1tica, permea a todos los sectores y, m=C3=A1s </s= pan>a=C3=BAn, a toda la actuaci=C3=B3n= estatal. Lo anterior se ha comprobado con la pandemia del COVID-19 y su </= span> </= span>relaci=C3=B3n con la libertad de = expresi=C3=B3n, tanto en su dimensi=C3=B3n individual como colectiva. </spa= n> </spa= n>La pandemia d= el COVID-192 ha ocasionado una crisis multifac=C3= =A9tica3. Por un lado, tenemos la arista de la salud p=C3=BAblica: la enfermedad se ha expandido a todo= s los continentes, salvo la Ant=C3=A1rtida, trayendo 1NACIONES UNIDAS, PACTO INTERNACIONAL DE LOS DEREC= HOS CIVILES Y POL=C3=8DTICOS, COMIT=C3=89 DE DERECHOS HUMANOS: =E2=80=9COb= servaci=C3=B3n general N.=C2=BA 34. Art=C3=ADculo 19: Libertad de opini=C3= =B3n y libertad de expresi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D (12/9/2011). Disponible en: </s= pan><a href=3D"https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC/34" target=3D"_blank" style= =3D"text-decoration:none">https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC= /34</a><a href=3D"https://undocs.org/es/CCPR/C/GC/34" target=3D"_bla= nk" style=3D"text-decoration:none">; </a>LA COL= EGIACI=C3=93N OBLIGATORIA DE PERIODISTAS. Corte Interamericana de Derechos= Humanos. Opini=C3=B3n Consultiva OC-5/85 de 13 de noviembre de <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;1985. Se= rie A No. 5.; CASO TRIST=C3=81N DONOSO VS. PANAM=C3=81. Corte Interamerican= a de Derechos Humanos. Excepci=C3=B3n Preliminar, Fondo, Reparaciones y C= ostas. Sentencia de 27 de enero de 2009. Serie C No. 193; GARC=C3=8DA </spa= n> RAM= =C3=8DREZ, S. y GONZA, A. (2007): La libertad de expresi=C3=B3n en la juris= prudencia de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos </p= >Humanos (M=C3=A9xico, Co= rte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos y Comisi=C3=B3n de Derechos Humanos = del Distrito Federal); ORGANIZACI=C3=93N DE ESTADOS AMERICANOS, COMISI=C3= =93N INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANOS (2020): =E2=80=9CRelator=C3=ADa de= Libertad de Expresi=C3=B3n, Declaraci=C3=B3n de principios de la libertad = de expresi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D. Disponible en<a href=3D"http://www.oas.= org/es/cidh/expresion/informes/tematicos.asp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"http://www.oa= s.org/es/cidh/expresion/informes/tematicos.asp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">http://www.oas.org/es/cidh/expresio= n/informes/tematicos.asp </a>2 Enfermedad causad= a por el coronavirus conocido como SARS-CoV-2 y que fue informada a la OMS = el 31 de diciembre de 2019. THE VISUAL AND DATA JOURNALISM TEAM,= BBC NEWS: =E2=80=9CCovid map: Coronavirus cases, deaths, <= /span>vaccinations by = country=E2=80=9D. Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.bbc.= com/news/world-51235105" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none"><= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; color:#000000">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.bbc.com/news/world-512= 35105" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">h= ttps://www.bbc.com/news/world-51235105 </s= pan></a>3= SHARMA, A., & BORAH,= S.B. (2020): =E2=80=9CCovid-19 and Domestic Violence: an Indirec= t Path to Social and Economic Crisis=E2=80=9D Journal of Family Violence. = Disponible en<a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020= -00188-8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8" targe= t=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.o= rg/10.1007/s10896-020-00188-8 </a></p= >5<img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgo= AAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADs= QBD6fLggAACNpJREFUeJzt3T1qVAEUhuHvzi+oUQtDOm2t3IJKliDaa5F1uBIJWLoDbUQEC2sD2= ioqOEQR1GF+7rgBwRQJ597J86zgLU5xui8BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAACgN5rqgJ64mORmknF1CL13nORDdQQA/TaqDuiJq0n2k1yoDqH33scDBwAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwJZpqgPoo= IevdtOsb1RnwKlq8ymHd79WZwCchlF1AB00XwwyHboNtst8OahOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADqiqQ6gZw5eXBmvh/eyaS5Xp8BZ2qQ= 9Wj3Zf17dAfAvo+oAeubjcr7cm7zNoJ1Wp8CZagez6gQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACADmmqA3rh0eudNItbo6YZV6cAQNc0q/xY/vp2lGc= PFtUt58WoOqAXvvxc5Nrw82oyGVanAEDntO2fJOvqDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAkpr= RO5v67SS7N9rJpLTHAtlovfufpm1nyuK1OAfgfU1onsfN9mmZ93RYqbK/VcDLLndvHeRkPHAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA58JfSVVD3jh9YmcAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"= 624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />consigo m=C3=A1s de un= mill=C3=B3n de muertos4. Frente al n=C3=BAmero creciente de personas fa= llecidas y al alto =C3=ADndice de contagio, una de las respuestas, por parte de los= Estados, fue imponer una cuarentena y un </p= >aislamiento oblig= atorio, con el objetivo de frenar la propagaci=C3=B3n del virus. <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Por otro lado, desde mediados de 2020, los Estados han enfrentado una = realidad adicional: la crisis econ=C3=B3mica. La crisis econ= =C3=B3mica causada por el COVID-19 es ex=C3=B3gena, incierta y global; lo q= ue requi= ere una respuesta estatal espec=C3=ADfica, especialmente, frente a las cons= ecuencias econ=C3=B3micas deriv= adas del confinamiento. Por ello, muchos Estados empezaron a levantar las p= rohibiciones de <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">movilidad y a permitir la reapertura de ciertos negocios.<sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt; l= etter-spacing:normal">5 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Las consecuencias econ=C3=B3micas de la pand= emia se han agudizado por varios factores, entre ellos: la falta de abastecimiento = de ciertas materias primas y el aumento de los costos de fletes para </span= > <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">exportaciones e importaciones. Este panorama, que de por s=C3=AD e= s l=C3=BAgubre, se complica a=C3=BAn m=C3=A1s. </spa= n>Por la pandemia, en palabras del Dir= ector General de la OMS, Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, nos hemos dado cuenta que nos = enfrentamos a una =E2=80=9Cinfodemia=E2=80=9D (=E2=80=9Cinfodemic=E2=80=9D = en ingl=C3=A9s).6 Si bien en cierto que la actual pandemia no es la primera a = la que se ha enfrentado la humanidad, la pandemia del = 0;COVID-= 19 tiene unas caracter=C3=ADsticas que la diferencian de las anteriores, co= ncretamente en lo que respecta a la informaci=C3=B3n disponible. Por un lado, exist= e una sobreabundancia de informaci=C3=B3n. Esta sobreabundancia proviene de diversos sectores, tanto ofici= ales como no oficiales. Por otro lado, es la primera vez que, durante una pandemia,= se usa la tecnolog=C3=ADa de las telecomunicaciones para nutrir la = <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">relaci=C3=B3n entre las autoridades y la poblaci=C3=B3n. Entre esta= s tecnolog=C3=ADas destacan las redes sociales, usadas &= #xa0;p= or los gobiernos para mantener a la poblaci=C3=B3n segura, informada y cone= ctada.7 &#= xa0;Esta= sobreabundancia de informaci=C3=B3n es calificada como una infodemia, tant= o por su car=C3=A1cter global, como por la falta de una estrategia coordinada, a = nivel internacional, sobre c=C3=B3mo eliminarla =E2=80=93lo cual, lastimosamente, tambi=C3=A9n ocurre con la pandemi= a del COVID-19. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sobre el tema, = cabe resaltar que, actualmente, un universo de informaci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 a= nuestro alcance con el solo to= que de la pantalla de un celular, tablet o computadora. Lastimosamente, no = toda esa informaci=C3=B3n es verdadera. Lo anterior se intensifica con las redes so= ciales, que son una de las 4 El avance del virus puede s= er observado en vivo en diversas p=C3=A1ginas, desde la OMS, pasando por el= Worldometer y la BBC, hasta las p=C3=A1ginas oficiales de diferentes Esta= dos. 5BORIO,= C. (2020): =E2=80=9CThe Covid-19 economic crisis: dang= erously unique=E2=80=9D Bussiness Economi= cs, Vol. 55, pp. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt">181-190. </sp= an>Disponible en: </sp= an><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1057/s11369-020-00184-2" target=3D"_blank"= style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.org/10.1057/s= 11369-020-00184-2</a><a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1057/s11369-020-0= 0184-2" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= ; </a>BORIO, C. (2020): =E2=80=9CThe prudential respons= e to the Covid- 19 crisis=E2=80=9D, speech on the occasion of the Bank=E2= =80=99s Annual General Meeting, Bank for International Settlements (6/30/20= 20). Disponible en: <a href=3D"https://www.bis.org/s= peeches/sp200630a.htm" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none"><sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = color:#0563c1">https://www.bis.org/speeches/sp200630a.htm</a><a href= =3D"https://www.bis.org/speeches/sp200630a.htm" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">; </a>DOUWE VAN DER PLOEG= , Jan (2020): =E2=80=9CFrom biomedical to politico-economic crisis: the f= ood system in times of Covid-19=E2=80=9D, The Journal of Peasant = Studies, 47:5, 944- 972, DOI: 10.1080/03066150.2020.1794843 </sp= an> 6 = TEDROS ADHANOM GHEBREYESUS (2020). 7 L=C3=93PEZ-CALVA, L.F. (2020): =E2=80=9CWhere the pandemic= meets the infodemic: The challenge of misinformation in the fight <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> against <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">COVI= D-19 in LAC=E2=80=9D. Disponible <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">en: <= /p><a href=3D"https://www.lat= inamerica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-graph-for-t= hought/where-the-pandemic-meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.htm= l" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https= ://www.latinamerica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-g= raph-for-thought/where-the- </a><= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><a href=3D"https://www.latinam= erica.undp.org/content/rblac/en/home/presscenter/director-s-graph-for-thoug= ht/where-the-pandemic-meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.html" t= arget=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">pandemic-= meets-the-infodemic--challenge-of-misinformat.html </a>6</sp= an><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACWtJREFUeJzt3b9LlWEYx+H7Ob5HMyyUIByM3KOmphrCM= aG1JQiR9iD6T9qjqM29IIIT0dDS2BBULhGRRL8oPcfzntMaQWCm3ufV61qf5cMz3ds3AgAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADjISnZAQ7QjYib8F/+vGxFfsiMAaLYqO6AhZiL= iUkQcyg6h8VYj4kF2BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALBPlewAAH5z5= cHR9sTkcnYGu2tQypv68M9HcWuxm90CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAuUxpAYyq5c7Z= 9rB1KjsD9tKgxHq9WT2Je+c/ZreMsio7AIC/6Nerm2X8c3YG7KnSq2Os9y07AwAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgL1iC3UrljrzVbSulzKc+vNpWMrX/u0LNzOyOACuPj5WVeM3ynBwPDsFdk= Vpvdj8Xt2NlXPr2SkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAMCoKtkBsC1LnemImM7OAGCHlV4dH+qP8XCxm50yyqrsANiW1vDk2LCczs4AYIeV= 9no9O/k0ItayU0aZA45melte1vPxKjsDgB32YWMYDy/2sjMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC= ABrOFuhXLz45E6Z2pSmlnpzTN2Ea8695feJ3dAQD7iSmtrVj7XMfxqa/9vv/6V/3WYD27AQAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAGAUlOyAxrnSmWu3Yy47A4Dm27yz8Dy7gWaqsgMapx1Tg7GYzc4A= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALapZAf= se9c6c9GPKjsDGunH2vtYudzLzgAYNQ6LXVYNyomohhPZHdBE/e7Ep4hwwAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwC74BRGPZnsJW+cSAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"= 808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />herramientas m= =C3=A1s utilizadas para obtener informaci=C3=B3n8= . Esta es la mayor prueba de que el acceso a la </sp= an>informaci=C3=B3n no es igual al con= ocimiento. Sumado a lo anterior, tene= mos la popularizaci=C3=B3n de las llamadas =E2=80=9Cfake news=E2=80=9D o noticias falsas. Pero =C2=BFqu=C3=A9 = ;son estas fake news<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">? Aunque no ha= y una definici=C3=B3n exacta, podemos conceptualizarlas como aquellas </spa= n> </spa= n>informaciones= que buscan enga=C3=B1ar intencionalmente a los destinatarios, obviando las= fronteras estatales. En funci=C3=B3n de lo anterior, podemos clasificar los </span= >fake = news e= n dos tipos: las que, por un lado, tergiversan informaci=C3=B3n ver=C3=ADdica; y, l= as que, por otro lado, inventan informaci=C3=B3n totalmente err=C3=B3nea. <= /span> En un est= udio realizado en 2020, el Reuters Institute determin=C3=B3 que el 59% de l= os fake news tergiversan informaci=C3=B3n ver=C3=ADdica; mientras que el 38% inventa inf= ormaci=C3=B3n err=C3=B3nea. El mismo estudio determin=C3=B3 = que 88% de los fake news proviene de redes sociales como = Facebook, Twitter, entre otras. Adicionalmente, el Observat= orio de la Infodemia del Comit=C3=A9 de la Fundaci=C3=B3n Bruno Kessler se= =C3=B1al=C3=B3, con datos de octubre de 2020, que en Am=C3=A9rica Latina la inform= aci=C3=B3n sobre el COVID-19 es, en muchos casos, poco confiable en lo que respecta= a Twitter. Seg=C3=BAn datos de la OMS (2020), en un lapso de 30 d=C3=ADas hu</span= >bo 361 000 000 tuits con los hashtags =E2=80=9C#COVID19=E2=80=9D= o =E2=80=9C#COVID-19=E2=80=9D. En ese s= entido, en marzo de 2020 hubo 55 millones de tuits sobre la = pandemia del COVID 19. Y, desde enero de = 2020 hasta octubre de 2020, se publicaro= n 19200 art=C3=ADculos en Google Scholar.9 <= /p>Hay casos en amb= os extremos: En Argentina y Jamaica el 80% de las noticias sobre el tema so= n confiables, mientras que en Per=C3=BA y Venezuela solo el = 25%. En Ecuador, de acuerdo con el estudio, el </spa= n>45% de los tweets son confiables. En= ese orden, los pa=C3=ADses con menores =C3=ADndices de confianza en el </s= pan> </s= pan>gobierno so= n los que tambi=C3=A9n tienen los menores =C3=ADndices de confianza en las = noticias. Ahora bien, ustedes pueden preguntarse c=C3=B3mo se relaciona esto con el= COVID-19 y la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Para poder responder esa pregunta, debemos indagar sobre qu=C3= =A9 versa esta avalancha de informaci=C3=B3n falsa y c=C3=B3mo la respuesta estatal= a la pandemia los termina afectando. Los fake news sobre el COVID- <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">19 se refieren a: qu=C3=A9 hacer para evita= r el COVID-19, qu=C3=A9 hacer si una persona se ha contagiado, qu=C3=A9 </s= pan> </s= pan>medicamentos tomar en caso de cont= agio, qu=C3=A9 est=C3=A1 haciendo el gobierno frente a la pandemia, entre <= /span> <= /span>otros. Ev= identemente, algunas de estas noticias contienen datos que pueden poner en = riesgo la vida de las personas. </s= pan>En lo que respecta a la actuaci=C3= =B3n estatal, los gobiernos buscan proyectar la imagen de que tienen un </s= pan> </s= pan>control rea= l y efectivo sobre la pandemia y sobre la respuesta que dan frente a ella.<= /span>10 La diversidad de = 8 Solo par= a tener en cuenta algunos datos: en 2020 exist=C3=ADan 3.6 billones de usua= rios de redes sociales y se espera que para el 2025= ese n=C3=BAmero crezca a 4.41 billones. &= #xa0;9 </spa= n>COVID19 INFODEMICS OBSERVATORY (2020). Disponible en<a href=3D"= https://covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:no= ne">: </a><a href=3D"https://covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/"= target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https:/= /covid19obs.fbk.eu/#/ </a>; THE LANCET </p= >INFECTIOUS DISEASES (202= 0): =E2=80=9CThe COVID-19 infodemic=E2=80=9D. <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt;= letter-spacing:normal">DOI: <a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1016/S147= 3-3099(20)30565-X" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565- </a><= a href=3D"https://doi.org/10.1016/S1473-3099(20)30565-X" target=3D"_blank" = style=3D"text-decoration:none">X </a>; WORLDO= METER. Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.worldometers.info/coronav= irus/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">:= </a><a href=3D"https://www.worldometers.info/coronavirus/" target= =3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.wo= rldometers.info/coronavirus/ </a>= 10 </p= >UNDP, =E2=80=9CGovernmen= ts must lead fight against coronavirus misinformation and disinformation=E2= =80=9D, (6/10/2020). Disponible en: <a href=3D"https://www.undp.org/press= -releases/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-against-coronavirus-misinformati= on-and" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= https://www.undp.org/press-releases/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-agains= t-coronavirus- </a><a href=3D"https://www.undp.org/press-relea= ses/undp-governments-must-lead-fight-against-coronavirus-misinformation-and= " target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">misinf= ormation-and </a>ADAMS E. y USCINSKI, J. (2020): =E2=80=9CC= onspiracy theories run rampant when people feel helpless. Like now=E2=80=9D= , The <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Washington Post, (5/5/2020). Disponible en: <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;<a href=3D"htt= ps://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/05/coronavirus-conspiracy-theor= ies-pandemic/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2020/05/05/coronavirus-conspi= racy-theories-pandemic/ </a>WARDLE, C., =E2=80=9CConspiraci= es, Rumors and Falsehoods: The truth about why the infodemic is so dangerou= s=E2=80=9D, Disponible en<a href=3D"https://www.youtube.com/watch?= v=3Dj1G5B8j5UG8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Dj1G5B8j5= UG8" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">htt= ps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3Dj1G5B8j5UG8 <= /span></a>7<= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64= ,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSF= lzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACOhJREFUeJzt3bFqUwEcxeFze2/S2lREKEK3LoIo6FBXR0fHurn4V= r6AS0cnJxdnJx0cxEmFilQrLZrcJL5CUeGf23zfE/zGs50EAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALrWmOmAgriU5SDKuDmHwjpO8qY4AYNi66oCB2ElyP8l2dQiD9z4GHAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwP/QVAcMwsGzUW7vX0873qhOAaDY7/Tpv57k6P= G8OoX11VUHDMK9O1tppje7JqPqFABq9e3iPMdX3iY5r24BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgLzXVAYPw5OVktLl9K30/qk4BgMHbSD/71X3I= 8wcn1SlD1VUHDEI7Hi0W8xtps1mdAgCDN19Os3H2qToDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC= AVeAL9SKevr6aZnq3axpfqEWavjmbffv5Li8enVe3AEA1X6gX8eV0mt32cz8et9Upa2s+m2Zvb1= adAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAinOlBavi8NVOJtmtzoBLrV0sc7r4nqOHP6pT4F+40= oJVMclO12W/OgMutXmz7LfyMYkBBwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACsvT+zUURK3p9iQ= AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />fuentes de informaci=C3=B3n tiende a afe= ctar esta imagen. En consecuencia, esta infodemia = merma = la &#x= a0;confi= anza en el Estado, los centros de salud y el trabajo que estos realizan. </= span> Aqu=C3=AD = los medios de comunicaci=C3=B3n juegan un rol importante. Sin embargo, se h= a visto c=C3=B3mo, en ciertos casos, estos medios de comunicaci=C3=B3n han dado pas= o a informaci=C3=B3n amarillista y contradictoria. Por &= #xa0;e= jemplo, las declaraciones de Jair Bolsonaro y Donald Trump sobre el uso de = mascarillas y sobre la eficacia de las vacunas.11 <= /span>Asimismo, las teor=C3=ADas conspirativas tienen mayor aside= ro cuando la gente est=C3=A1 ansiosa por la falta de informaci=C3=B3n completa y co= herente sobre qu=C3=A9 sucede, qu=C3=A9 se debe hacer y qu=C3=A9 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >no se debe hacer,= entre otros. Se han identificado tres estrategias estatales para dar respuesta a e= sta situaci=C3=B3n. Cabe destacar que la adopci=C3=B3n de estas medidas se ha hecho= mediante decretos de excepci=C3=B3n, decretos espec=C3=ADficos o =E2=80=9C= leyes flash=E2=80=9D, sin respetar los procesos democr=C3=A1= ticos establecidos a nivel nacional. La primera estrategia es la criminalizaci=C3= =B3n de la propagaci=C3=B3n de fake news<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. Es decir, hacer= uso del Derecho Penal para frenar la infodemia. Tenemos, por ejemplo, al gobierno = de Orban en Hungr=C3=ADa o el Decreto N. 420 en Bolivia, lo cuales impusieron penas= de privaci=C3=B3n de libertad a quienes incurr=C3=ADan en conductas relacionadas con compartir <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">fake new= s sobre el COVID-19. Por un lado, es importante <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">advertir que el uso del ius puniendi <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">puede disminuir= la posibilidad de revisar las actuaciones estatales y, por el otro, que el trabajo de los periodistas se= ve claramente afectado al vulnerarles su libertad de expresi=C3=B3n. Adem=C3=A1s= , no siempre se comparten estas fake news de forma malici= osa. En consecuencia, la imponer penas por compartir fake news p= uede configurarse en abuso del derecho y en violaci=C3=B3n de la <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">libertad de expres= i=C3=B3n. La segunda estrategia es la implementaci=C3=B3n de medidas administrativa= s, mediante la creaci=C3=B3n de =C3=B3rganos para el combat= ir la desinformaci=C3=B3n o la malainformaci=C3=B3n. Algunos ejemplos se pu= eden enc= ontrar en India y Serbia, d=C3=B3nde se tiene establecido qui=C3=A9n est=C3= =A1 autorizado para dar informaci=C3=B3n sobre el COVID-19 y cu=C3=A1l es la corres= pondiente respuesta estatal. Otro ejemplo puede ser Rumania, en d=C3=B3nde, si bien= no se cre=C3=B3 una entidad espec=C3=ADfica, se flexibilizaron los plazos = en los cuales las = autoridades deb=C3=ADan suministrar informaci=C3=B3n sobre la pan= demia, por ejemplo, ante requerimientos de </= p>periodistas. La tercera estrategia es la adopci= =C3=B3n de gu=C3=ADas o acuerdos con empresas privadas para bajar el conten= ido de <= /span>= fake news en sus redes sociales. Esto se ha hecho en conjunto, muchas veces, con = organismos internacionales, as= =C3=AD como con entidades de la sociedad civil. En ese sentido, en este =C3= =BAltimo semestre, se ha visto = una proliferaci=C3=B3n de sitios de encargados de revisar las noticias y de= hacer lo que en ingl=C3=A9s SCOTT BRENNEN, J., et al. (2020): =E2=80=9CTypes, = Sources, and Claims of COVID-19 Misinformation=E2=80= =9D, factsheet 2020, Reuters Institute.= Disponible en: https://reutersinstitute.politics= .ox.ac.uk/sites/default/files/2020-04/Brennen%20- </= p>%20COVID%2019%20Misinfor= mation%20FINAL%20%283%29.pdf 11 DW, =E2=80=9CBolsonaro busca frenar de nuevo medidas co= ntra COVID-19=E2=80=9D, (28/5/2021). Disponible en: &#x= a0;<a href=3D"http= s://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca-frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-covid-19/a= -57695492" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca-frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-cov= id-19/a-57695492</a><a href=3D"https://www.dw.com/es/bolsonaro-busca= -frenar-de-nuevo-medidas-contra-covid-19/a-57695492" target=3D"_blank" styl= e=3D"text-decoration:none">; </a>EFE, =E2=80=9CJair Bolsonaro = 0;promueve tres= tipos de t=C3=A9 ind=C3=ADgenas para tratar el COVID-19 en Brasi= l=E2=80=9D, (27/5/2021). Disponible en: </= p><a href=3D"https://www.elun= iverso.com/noticias/internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-= indigenas-para-tratar-el-covid-19-en-brasil-nota/" target=3D"_blank" style= =3D"text-decoration:none">https://www.eluniverso.com/noti= cias/internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-indigenas-para-= tratar-el- </a><a href=3D"https://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/= internacional/jair-bolsonaro-promueve-tres-tipos-de-te-indigenas-para-trata= r-el-covid-19-en-brasil-nota/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:n= one">covid-19-en-brasil-nota/ </a>; TOLLEFSON, = J. (2020): =E2=80=9CHow Trump damaged science =E2=80=94 and why it could take decades to rec= over=E2=80=9D, (10/5/2020). Disponible en<a href=3D"https:= //www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-02800-9" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"te= xt-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"https://www.n= ature.com/articles/d41586-020-02800-9" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-deco= ration:none">https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-020-0= 2800-9 </a>8se c= onoce como =E2=80=9Cfact checking=E2=80=9D. Por ejemplo, ver el trabajo de = OpenSecrets, la African Infodemic Response Alliance, Polifact, Boomlive, entre otros. Si bien usar la ley para l= imitar los fake news no es una novedad (ya en 1257 Eduardo I emiti=C3=B3 la ley = = contra =E2=80=9Cnoticias y cuen= tos falsos=E2=80=9D), actualmente existen est=C3=A1ndares nacionales e inte= rnacionales que <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">contemplan las circunstancias para limitar la libertad de expresi= =C3=B3n y para evitar la limitaci=C3=B3n arbitraria. = ;Adicion= almente, si se empieza a seguir el planteamiento de ciertos autores sobre q= ue la libertad de expresi=C3=B3n es un derecho cuyo ejercici= o es inderogable y no susceptible de limitaci=C3=B3n, los Estados deben </s= pan> encontrar n= uevas herramientas para enfrentar la infodemia. Frente a estas actuaciones que, en mucho= s casos, podr=C3=ADan ser calificadas como desesperadas, los =C3=B3rganos de protec= ci=C3=B3n de Derechos Humanos han emitido varias resoluciones que contienen= = ;recomendaciones para los Estad= os en el marco de la pandemia. En todas ellas se recuerda la importancia de que las medidas adoptadas para= frenar la propagaci=C3=B3n del virus tengan a los derechos humanos como centro. </= span> Si bien es cierto que los derechos humanos son la br=C3=BAjula= del poder estatal, en =C3=A9poca de pandemia, la </= span>infodemia puede ayudar a propagar la enfermedad y a minar el trabajo del Estado por = contenerla. De igual manera, puede amplificar los discurso= s de odio, el riesgo de conflictos, la estigmatizaci=C3=B3n, la <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> violencia, las viol= aciones de derechos humanos, siendo, en consecuencia, un riesgo real para l= a = 0;democracia. A estos riesgos h= ay que sumarle las afectaciones a la vida, la salud y la integridad de las = = personas. Muchas gracias por haberme = permitido hacer estas reflexiones superficiales sobre una relaci=C3=B3n </s= pan> tripartita: libertad de expresi=C3=B3n, infodemia y pandemia. Relaci=C3=B3n que debe ser abordada no solo desde <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>el plano jur=C3=ADdico, sino que tambi= =C3=A9n requiere un enfoque multidisciplinario para lograr una mayor </span= > </span= >protecci=C3=B3n a los derechos humano= s. Finalmente, cabe se=C3=B1alar que, al igual que la pandemia, se requiere= = ;un abor= daje global de esta relaci=C3=B3n, ya que tanto la propagaci=C3=B3n de los = fake news como del COVID-19 no se li= mita a las fronteras estatales. 9<= span style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:8"><img= src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NA= AAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACCRJREFUeJztzjFqAlEYBsBv= cREjwUbwJPY5gTf0FoKHSbOdna2FJm9ziKA/D2dOMAkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAb2yoDgDFDqf1uNvs04aP6grP9bOYv3P8mqofwP+N1QGg2PazDXO7zW3xW13hye7tUV= 0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAeLWhOtCJXZJDklV1hO5NSc7VCQD6NlYHOnFPckmyrI7QvWt1AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAHhTfyjPFd/o1xJ2AAAAAEl= FTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute= " />IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt"= > 1607-4319) <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:normal">Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 <span= class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:11pt; le= tter-spacing:normal"> pp. 10 =E2=80=93 1= 5 _________________________________________________= ____________________________________ Legislative Malapp= ortionment and Disproportionality: </spa= n>reforms to improve Panama=E2= =80=99s democratic governance=EF=80=AA = Hugo Wood N=C3=BA=C3=B1ez=EF=81=B9 *Autor para Correspondencia. E-mail<a href= =3D"mailto:hugowood06@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration= :none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:hugowood06@gmail.com" target=3D"_bl= ank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">hugowood06@gmail.com <= /span></a>Recib= ido: 30 de junio de 2021 Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 </spa= n> = ________= ______________________________________________________________________ </sp= an> = ;Resumen: La realidad electoral de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 plantea una inef= ectiva distribuci=C3=B3n electoral y desproprorcionalidades electorales. Dichos fen= =C3=B3menos electorales reflejan distorsiones en las instituciones democr=C3=A1ticas paname=C3=B1as. Por e= jemplo, la Asamblea Nacional de Panam=C3=A1, donde el sistema de elecci=C3=B3n de= diputados no cumple con una representatividad real de los ciudadanos </spa= n> = paname=C3=B1os. En el presente ensayo, el autor desarrolla los co= nceptos de mala distribuci=C3=B3n y desproporcionalidad elec= torales con los resultados de las Elecciones Generales de Panam=C3=A1 del a= =C3=B1o 2019. A su vez, plantea la posibilidad de aumentar e= l tama=C3=B1o de los distritos electorales para resolver &= #xa0;e= stas distorsiones del sistema electoral paname=C3=B1o. &= #xa0;Palabras clave: </s= pan>Mala distribuci=C3=B3n electoral, desproporcionalidad, sistem= as electorales, distritos electorales, representaci=C3=B3n democr=C3=A1tica, gobier= no democr=C3=A1tico. Abstract: Panama=E2=80=99s electoral rea= lity demonstrates legislative malapportionment and electoral disproportionality. Those distortions are reflected in Panamanian democrat= ic institutions. For instance, the current composition of Panama=E2=80=99s Legislat= ure does not comply with the standards of citizen representation. In this article, the author discusses the idea= s of malapportionment and dispr= oportionality within the Panamanian Electoral System in light of the result= s of 2019 General = Elections. Th= e author also recommends increasing the magnitude and scope of electoral di= stricts. Keywords<s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">: Malapportionment, disproportionality, electoral systems, electora= l districts, democratic representation, democratic governanc= e. =EF=80=AA<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">E= nsayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9CDemocracy and Development in= Latin America=E2=80=9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en Pol=C3=ADtica </sp= an> P= =C3=BAblicas de the London School of Economics and Political Sciences. </sp= an> <span= class=3D"stl42" style=3D"font-size:6.5pt; letter-spacing:normal">=EF=81=B9= Licenciado en D= erecho y Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, = Magna Cum Laude); Maest= r=C3=ADa en Derecho y Desarrollo Internacional (Tulane University Law Scho= ol); Maestr=C3=ADa en Estudios Globales e Internacionales <= /span>(Tsinghua Univer= sity in Beijing, Schwarzman Scholar); Maestr=C3= =ADa en Pol=C3=ADticas P=C3=BAblicas (The London School of Economics </span= > and P= olitical Science, Chevening Scholar); Profesor A= djunto de Derecho, Pol=C3=ADtica y Econom=C3=ADa de Comportamiento <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua). 10 </sp= an><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBBJREFUeJzt1rEJwgAURdGXoEgaW13MRgdwOknnFhY2Y= uEggkScIQT5RM+Z4JY3AQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABGa6oDZqJN0lVH8BOGJM/qCADmbVEdMB= ObJLuYOKZ7JDlVRwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMEVTHQDACIfze= rnq9k3bbqtT+C/DO7fheu9zOb6qWwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAD4lg8DPw4FuMXHVwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" a= lt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />I. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spacin= g:0.05pt"> <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Introduction In Panama, the legislature is one of the less trus= ted institutions and is a constant focal point for controversy. A large criticism resides on the quality o= f legislators, clientelism and corruption, and the accurate representation of citizens. This essay will di= scuss the latter factor through the analysis of two challenges that concern the qua= lity of participation and the fairness of legislative representation in </s= pan> Panama: the= so-ca= lled =E2=80=98malapportionment=E2=80=99 and disproportionality. This articl= e will also argue for the incre= ase of electoral district magnitudes. Malapportionment refers to the unequal relationship that exists be= tween the percentage of citizens residing in each legislative district and the percentage of elected legis= lators in it. Malapportionment = translates into distortions in the average number of voters for each legisl= ator among the different electoral districts that divide the nation. Disproportiona= lity, as the same word indicates, is the = disproportionality between the part of v= otes and the part of legislative seats obtained by each party. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Disproportionality leads to the over-repres= entation of some parties and the under-representation of others with respect to its effective electoral we= ight. Both phenomena are especially problematic for democratic governance, insofar as they tend to invalid= ate the fundamental principle according to which each vote should have the same political-electoral weight= . = 0;II. Background<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </spa= n>and co= ntext =E2=80=93 Panama=E2=80=99s Democratic and Legis= lative Outlook Panama recovered its democracy in 1989, = after 21 years of dictatorship rule. Since then, 6 elections have been held, having= one of the highest turnout averages in the world (74%), and in each one, t= he &#x= a0;rulin= g power gave away its mandate to an opposing party. This phenomenon has bee= n carried through peaceful electoral processes, that highlig= ht the health of its democracy. However, the country still faces <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">enduring institutional challenges to fairly represent its citizens. </= span> The political class that has been ruling since the democratic = transition is increasingly questioned by a </= p>disenchanted and critical citizenship th= at begins to distrust its elected representatives and perceives <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = corruption as one of the fundamental obs= tacles to the country's development1. Likewise, a growing number of political and social actors denounc= e a growing inequality in the access and distribution of the positions of popular election, leaving many p= arties without representation in the National Assembly. Here arise the malaise and risks of ungovernabilit= y associated with a latent crisis of traditional parties, political representation and democratic legitima= cy in general. <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Among the options to improve the performance of a political system a= re the possibilities offered by the reform of the electoral= system. Duverger argues that electoral systems shape the number of parties= and the= refore the outcomes of democratic processes2. Wit= hout being the panacea, the set of legal = norms that regula= te the transformation of votes into mandates of popular representation exer= ts a great influence on the modalities of partisan competiti= on, the quality of citizen participation, the </span= >1LATINOBAROMETRO<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">, Informe 2018. Retrieved on February 10, 2020 fro<a= href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D= "text-decoration:none">m </a><a href=3D"http://www= .latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:no= ne">http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp</a><a h= ref=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"t= ext-decoration:none">. </s= pan></a>2 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">D= UVERGER, Maurice (196= 4): =E2=80=9CPolitical Parties: their organization and activity in the mode= rn state=E2=80=9D. Methuen. </= span>11 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAACBNJREFUeJzt1r0NQWEYhuHnO34KBlBI7GIOidJWZw+N3gCmsIBGDhugkLz5kuua4C7vB= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAL5q1QGd2CU5= JVlXh9C9W5KxOgKAvhm43yyTbJIM1SF075HkXh0BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/9SqA7pwvGzni9lhaG1VnQLAZ9Nru= j7H/bm6AwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD68wb50QwEF90F4= gAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />proportionality of political representation and the functioning= of the political system in general3. Based </spa= n> = on the referr= ed rationale, this essay argues for a specific reform to the Panamanian ele= ctoral system. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spac= ing:0.05pt">III. The Panamanian Electoral System =E2=80=93 The Legislature Panama, as well as all Latin Am= erican countries, has a presidential system, based on a traditional = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">majoritarian = =E2=80=98First Past the Post=E2=80=99 model. However, Panama is somehow nov= el on the composition of </p= >the legislature. A unicameral system of = 71 seats that are divided between single and multi-member districts. From the refer= red 71 seats, 26 legislators are elected from single-member districts and t= he remai= ning 45 from multi-member districts. Seats are allocated through simple maj= ority rule in single- districts and through a proportional formula in the multi-mem= ber districts. In practice, the reduced = size of the former imposes very high eff= ective barriers that tend to exclude small parties from legislative representation. Based on the referred electoral rules, historicall= y, the legislative representation in Panama has been characterized by high and persistent disproportionali= ty, as a result of a hybrid electoral system with a marked majority bias<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">4<= /span>. Altho= ugh this progressively decreased due to an increasing concentration of </sp= an> </sp= an>the vote and the party system durin= g the last fifteen years, Panama is still amongst the highest electoral </s= pan> </s= pan>malapportionment and disproportion= ality rated countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. IV. Analysis and = evidence =E2=80=93 Effects of Malapportionment and Dis= proportionality in Democracy 1. Malapportionment = According to Lijhpart, m= alapportionment happens when =E2=80=9Cthe districts have substantially une= qual voting popul= ations where malapportioned multimember districts have magnitudes that are = no commensurate with their voting populations=E2=80=9D5<spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">. He argues that it is especially hard to avoid the malapportionment = issue in plurality systems with single-member districts, suc= h as Panama, because equal apportionment requires that &= #xa0;relatively many small di= stricts be drawn with exactly equal electorates. He proposes that <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>malapportionment is eliminated when elec= tions are conducted with a nationwide upper tier as in Germany and Sweden. The underlying problem of the referre= d distortions is based on the rules governing the district=E2=80=99s design= . Unlike= what usually happens in most contemporary representative democracies, the = territorial basis of the legislative districts in Panama does not reside, nor in a = national constituency (in which only the = president of the republic is elected), n= or in the ten provinces and five indigenous regions, not even in <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >the 679 sub-districts that make up the n= ational territory today. This base relies, in an unusual way, on <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >3 LIJHPART, Arend </spa= n>(2012): Patterns of Democracy: =E2=80=9CGovernment Forms and Performan= ce in 36 countries=E2=80=9D. Yale University Press. 4PANAMA=E2=80=99<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">S= ELECOTRA= L TRIBUNAL Offic= ial Results of 2019 General Elections. Retrieved on February 13, = 2020 from: <a href=3D"https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electoral= es/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decorat= ion:none">https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-e= lectorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/</a><a href=3D"https://www= .tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1994-20= 19/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. <= /span> </a>5 LIJHPART <= /span>(2012). 12 = <img src=3D"d= ata:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSV= QICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACDpJREFUeJzt3bltAgEURdE/DJCORAF2S= iNIlIEIqIICyKjAFbgES2Q0QgFIECAYFrsGNn8NnFPBDV/2IgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= A4CGK7ICG6EfELCKq7BAabxkR0+wIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4= EUV2QHwbJ3RYly0y4/sDuCx6k09j+/BJrsDAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAuIcrLYCm= mvxU3X3x+dsqW9kpvJdjeVjF13Cd3fHO2tkBANzotLvU0dtHnAw4/te2PGcnAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABw= rT/T+RjsWT2l5QAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />the geographical boundaries= of the 81 districts (in which the mayors are elected), whose demographic <= /span> heterogeneity considerably restricts the room for maneuver, t= hereby distorting representation in the = National Assembly. A case to illustrate this contrasting phenomenon c= an be found in the 2019 elections, when Juan Vasquez, a Legislator from San Miguelito, one of the largest = districts, had to obtain ten times the votes than Petita Ayarza, a legislator from Guna Yala, one of the s= mallest. Vasquez obtained 33,393 votes from a multi-member district of 243,978 vo= ters and Ayarza obtained 3,725 votes from a single- = member district of 10,141 voter= s6. It is clear that votes in one district have more impact, thus result= ing &#= xa0;in malapportionment. This c= ontrast is prevalent all over the country and is disrupting the natural </s= pan> </s= pan>representat= ion that the electoral system should provide. </span= >2. Dispro= portionality There is a close relationship between elec= toral systems and party systems that depends, fundamentally, on the level of proportionality of the former, which determines its restri= ctive effects on the latter. As highlighted by the influential work of Taagepara a= nd Shugart, the magnitude of the districts constitutes the key or =E2=80=9Cdecisive=E2=80=9D variable of= disproportionality, even above the allocation formula, whose specific </sp= an> </sp= an>effects also= depend on the number of seats assigned in each constituency7</spa= n>. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>In Panama, disproportionality has tended= to benefit the first, second and third political forces, marginalizing or excluding most of the other par= ties of the National Assembly. The narrow and limited territorial link that curre= ntly characterizes legislative representation in Panama not only has advant= ages for specific legislators but can also become a constrai= nt for newcomers. This also contributes to the strengthening= and consolidation of traditional parties. If the seats where more proportional, le= gislators' careers would no longer depend only on their ability to solve sp= ecific problems in their respec= tive districts (specifically in single-member districts), but also on their= ability to add demands and rep= resent interests at a broader level, to inspect the executive and to legisl= ate. All actions that, as reflected by different surveys, are not being perceived b= y the majority of the population8 and are central for democratic governance. </s= pan> </s= pan>3. Effect on the =E2=80=98Effe= ctive=E2=80=99 Number of Parties In Latin America, the presidency is the big= gest political prize to be won and because only large parties have a chance to win = it, these said parties have a considerable advantage over smaller ones, whi= ch, in 6 </spa= n>PANAMA=E2=80=99S </= span>ELECOTRAL <= /span>TRIBUNAL <= /span>Official Results of 2019 General Elections. </spa= n> 7 <= /span>TAAGEPARA, Rein and S</s= pan>HUGART, Matthew (1989): =E2=80=9CDesigning electo= ral systems=E2=80=9D. University of California Irvine</spa= n>. Retrieved on February 12, 2020 fro<a href=3D"https://eschola= rship.org/content/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"tex= t-decoration:none">m: </a><a href=3D"https://escho= larship.org/content/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"t= ext-decoration:none">https://escholarship.org/content/qt2= 8t10044/qt28t10044.pdf</a><a href=3D"https://escholarship.org/conten= t/qt28t10044/qt28t10044.pdf" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:non= e">. </a>8 LATINOBAROMETRO, Informe 2018. Retr= ieved on February 10, 2020 fro<a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.= org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">m </a><a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.org/lat.jsp" targ= et=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">http://www.l= atinobarometro.org/lat.jsp</a><a href=3D"http://www.latinobarometro.= org/lat.jsp" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. </a>13 <= span style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:12"><im= g src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2N= AAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBJJREFUeJzt1kENwkAARNF= pIBzIiiBYwQtXzKAACyhBBCcMkJa2OCBcyHbDewp+5jQJAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA0J= KudkAjdklOSUrtEJp3S3KuHQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8Ce62gFNOF63m7Hs5zHr2ikAfDZM0yOXw712B/ySQ/KNvk= z9Ks/YC2D55tdQOwEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAJbnDaIYEvp7CuGJAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624= " height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />consequence, has an effe= ct on legislative elections. This tendency is especially strong when the </= span> </= span>presidential election is decided = by plurality instead of majority runoff9, as is= the case of Panama. To have a legislature that truly repres= ents voters and not the strength of a presidential candidate is <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> vital for its legitimacy and for democracy. In Panama, since 1989 just = 3 parties have won the presidency, and naturally have suppor= ted the existing disproportionality. In consequence, the &= #xa0;majorities in the legisl= ature have come from those parties, and predominantly from 2 main parties <= /span> <= /span>(PRD and = Panamenista), just with the exception in 2009 of Cambio Democratico, which = through an alliance with the Panamenista Party won the election and had a majority = in the legislature. Several par= ties have failed to survive in the legislature due to the lack of a strong = presidential candidate. The number of effective parties illustrates this. Panama cu= rrently has 7 political parties registered and </spa= n>2 in the form= ation process. In contrast, based on the Laasko theory to determine the num= ber of parties that effectively hold power10, considering the number of seats = they receive, the country just has 3.68 effective parties. This number illustrates the cu= rrent inequality between the 3 largest parties and the rest. That is just unfair = competition, which is perpetuated by the current district magnitude framewo= rk. V. Recommendation =E2=80=93 Increase district m= agnitude <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Panama has the lo= west district magnitude average in Latin America11. This is creating </s= pan> </s= pan>malapportio= nment and disproportionality. A proposal to tackle these challenges is a na= tionwide district magnitude increase. T= he proposal argues for the election of the 71 legislators through 15 multi-= member districts divided betwee= n the 10 provinces and the 5 indigenous regions of the country and the elim= ination of single- member distr= icts. This electoral reform will entail that districts would go from the cu= rrent average of <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">56,000 voters per legislative district to an average of 200,000. <= /span> Malapport= ionment would be significantly reduced as the unequal relationship between = the percentage <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">of citizens residing in each legislative district and the percentage= of elected legislators in it will be more </= p>equal between the= different districts. This would entail the decrease of distortions in the = average = number of voters for each legislator among the different districts that div= ide the national territory, such as the one described between San Miguelito and Gun= a Yala. Additionally, disproportionality = would decline substantially as a fair pr= oportion between votes and the legislative seats obtained by each party will be achieved contrasting the c= urrent context that is leading towards the over- representation of some parties and the under-representati= on of others with respect to its effective electoral weight. This approach would pr= oduce more balanced effects on legislative representation, the party system and the= legitimacy of the political system. 9SHUGART, Matthew and C<= /span>AREY, John (1992): =E2=80=9CPresidents and Asse= mblies: Constitutional Design and Electoral Dynamics=E2=80=9D. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">University of California, San Diego. </span= >10 LAAKSO, Markku= ; and TAGGAPERA, Rein (1979): =E2=80=9CThe =E2= =80=9CEffective=E2=80=9D Number of Parties: =E2=80=9CA Measure with Applica= tion to West Europe=E2=80=9D. 11 PANAMA=E2=80=99</span= >S EL= ECOTRAL TRIBUNAL Official Results of 2019 General Elections. Retrieved on Februar= y 13, 2020 from: <a href=3D"https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-ele= ctorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-d= ecoration:none">https://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eve= ntos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1994-2019/</a><a href=3D"https= ://www.tribunal-electoral.gob.pa/eventos-electorales/elecciones-generales-1= 994-2019/" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">. </a>14 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The increase in th= e magnitude of the districts would bring the legislators closer to the gene= ral interests <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">of the nation, wi= thout cutting them off from their constituents and extending, in passing, t= he &#x= a0;autonomy, functions, and lev= el of responsibilities of the members of the National Assembly. But = = above all, the legislators would stop = representing mainly localist interests related to the particular <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >concerns and dema= nds of their small constituencies and would also have incentives to reduce = the extension of clientelism and represent more general inte= rests related to the problems of the provinces, </sp= an>the regions = and the nation. From the perspective of the electorate, can= didates for the legislature would be recruited on a more &= #xa0;diverse and broader soci= odemographic basis, which would have a positive impact on the <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">competitiveness of th= eir selection, and on the average level of their training, preparation and = personal experience. These enhancements will directly tackle= the ongoing criticism towards the quality of </span= >legislators, the party system and wil= l improve the governance framework. VI. </p= >Critique - I= ncrease on electoral campaign costs = A criticism that this policy could have = is that it would have a negative impact on the cost of electoral <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >campaigns, excluding fewer wealthy candi= dates from the races. However, the increase in electoral spending is due to factors beyond the demographic= size of the districts, such as allowing private funding in campaigns or the period= of elections, so it can be effectively limited by specific reforms on </sp= an> financing an= d campaign ceilings. 15 </span= ><img src=3D"data:image/png= ;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAA= AAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACCxJREFUeJzt1s1pAmEYhdE7OFkEIa5cTy3WkB5swgYswy= qycS9TRxoQJOBi8KeFLJSXT8+p4FldbgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAG3oqgOAYuv94uMy+86t+6pO4YGuGafdaqzOAJ6jrw4Aih2Pf9N8+ZPJHry= W86m6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABeTVcd0IjPJEOSv= jqE5p2S/FZHANA2h+R/hiTbJIvqEJp3SLKpjgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAeGd3vlcTjYstPQYAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 16 - 32 Interpreting the Justiciability of GATT=E2=80= =99s Article XXI: Security Exceptions</s= pan>=EF=80= =AA =EF=81=B9<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:14pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">Ana Carolina Rodr=C3=ADguez <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">*Autor para Co= rrespondencia. E-mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" targe= t=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailt= o:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">= anacarolina@illueca.com </a>Recibido: 14 de junio de 2021 <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Aceptado: 15 de julio de 2021 _________________________= ___________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo analiza la justiciabilidad= del art=C3=ADculo XXI del Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles A= duaneros y Comercio. Para ello, se analiza: (i) el contenido del art=C3=ADc= ulo XXI; (ii) su car=C3=A1cter auto- justiciable; (iii) los = trabajos preparatorios que conducen a su redacci=C3=B3n; (iv) las discusion= es llevadas a cabo en el Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio/Organ= izaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio; (v) las consideraciones de la Corte Internaciona= l de Justicia; (vi) las posturas acad=C3=A9micas; </= span>(vii) el est=C3=A1ndar de revisi= =C3=B3n; (viii) la pr=C3=A1ctica de los Estados; (ix) las estrategias para = prevenir el abuso = del Derecho; y (x) consideraciones finales. = 0;Palabras clave: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </s= pan>General Agreement on Tariffs and T= rade, World Trade Organization, Article XXI, security exceptions, self-judging. Abstract: This paper analyzes the justiciability of Article XXI of the General Agr= eement on Trade and Tariffs. To this end, it delves into: (i) the content of Articl= e XXI; (ii) its self-judging character; (iii) the preparatory works that led to its= factual wording; (iv) the discussions conducted before the General = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Agreement on Tr= ade and Tariffs and the World Trade Organization system; (v) the Internatio= nal &#= xa0;=EF=80=AA</spa= n>Ensayo presentado como parte del curso =E2=80=9CInternational Trade Law=E2=80=9D en la Maestr=C3=ADa en = Derecho de la Universidad de Nueva York. </spa= n>=EF=81=B9Licenciada en Derecho y Cienci= as Pol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Summa Cum Laude); Certificado en </span= > Coope= raci=C3=B3n y Soluci=C3=B3n de Conflictos (Teacher=E2=80=99s College, Colum= bia University); Maestr=C3=ADa en Derecho (New York = University). Mediadora= id=C3=B3nea en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, y consultora y obeservado= ra electoral a nivel local e internacional. Miembro de la Junta Directiva = Global de Generaci=C3=B3n Democracia del Instituto Republicano Internaciona= l. 16 <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;b= ase64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAA= AlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB84pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81= wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" = style=3D"position:absolute" />Court of Justice considerations; (vi) scholarly wri= tings; (vii) the standard of review; (viii) the state practice; (ix) the strategies for preventing legal= abuses; and (x) it offers some final considerations. Keywords: Acuerdo General sobre Aranceles Aduaneros y Comercio, Organi= zaci=C3=B3n Mundial del Comercio, art=C3=ADculo XXI, excepciones relativas a la seguridad, auto-justiciabl= e. &#x= a0;= I. Introduction </span= >The General Agreement on Trade and Ta= riffs (GATT)1 embodies exceptions to the obligations and principles of the agreement. Specifically, Art= icle XXI deals with security exceptions and reads as follows: = =E2=80=9CNothing in this Agreement shall be construed (a) to require any contract= ing party to furnish any information the disclosure of which it considers contrary = to its essential security interests; or (b) to prevent any contracting party from taking any action which= it considers <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">necessary for the protection of its essential security interests </sp= an> (i) relating= to fissionable materials or the materials from which they are derived; </s= pan> </s= pan>(ii) relating to the traffic in ar= ms, ammunition and implements of war and to such traffic in other goods and materia= ls as is carried on directly or indirectly for the purpose of supplying a military = establishment; <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">(iii) taken in time of war or other emergency in international relat= ions; or (c) to prevent any contracting party from taking an= y action in pursuance of its obligations under the United Nations Charter for the m= aintenance of international pea= ce and security.=E2=80=9D2 This provision is treated separa= tely from the general exceptions contained in Article XX of the same </span= > <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">instrument with an evident differentiation purpose. Article XXI de= als with security exceptions, perhaps the most subjective an= d sensitive issue nations have jurisdiction over. This article has been </s= pan> subject of = debate, particularly over its self-judging character and justiciability. Am= ong the legal <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">questions raised = is whether Article XXI exceptions are subject to the GATT dispute settlemen= t = 0;mechanism, enshrined in Artic= le XXIII. Those who claim its justiciability elaborate on the standard </sp= an> </sp= an>of review th= at a panel should apply when determining violations of GATT obligations. Th= e jurisp= rudence of the GATT/WTO does not provide a definitive answer to these quest= ions3. Since the establishment of the GATT, members have brought few complaints = regarding measures justified under Article XXI but no binding report has been adopt= ed. Under the original GATT dispute 1 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE (G= ATT), Geneva (October 30, 1947). 2 GATT, art. XXI. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;3 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">LINDSAY, Peter (2003): =E2=80=9CThe Ambiguity of GATT Article XXI: Subtle= Success or Rampant Failure=E2=80=9D, Duke Law Journal, <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt"> Vol. 52, pp. 1278-1279. 17 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/= png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhk= iAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACMRJREFUeJzt3TFqVWEUhdF9HiFNmhCEdJmAc0nhFKw= sMxetHUgK7VNobWUrlipIQjyZwAOfCPnveazV/s0uP7hcTgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= BMUqsHDPEyydsk56uHMN7HJDerRwAAAAAAAAAAAAAArOAnhv/U3RdJrlbvAIAj8Zjka1X9WD1ky= 05WDzgC10nerx4BAMegu39W1askt6u3bNlu9QAAAP6NgAMAGEbAAQAMI+AAAIYRcAAAwwg4AIBh= BBwAwDACDgBgGAEHADCMSwwH6O5Kcpr9p8d23X3/zJOAgaqqk3R3r54CW/Y7yZ/VI7ZOwB3mKsm= bJGf73rr7+zPvAQbq7sckH5Lcrd4CG/ZQVV9Wj9g6AXeYyySvk7zY97jb+RIN/F1331fVp6p6t3= oLMJvyAAAYRsABAAwj4AAAhhFwAADDCDgAgGEEHADAMAIOAGAYAQcAMIyAAwAYxiWGw/zq7s9Jz= lcPAUZ7SPJt9QgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgmSdX8TS6U5jkwAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />settlement system, </spa= n>the panels= =E2=80=99 jurisdiction was curtailed by a requirement of consensus among me= mber &= #xa0;S= tates in order to issue a binding report. With the establishment of the Wor= ld Trade Organization (WTO) and the adoption of the Dispute Settlement Understandi= ng (DSU), a new dispute settlement = mechanism gave panels more inde= pendence and much less power to members to block the reports. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Only on one occasion has an Article XXI comp= laint been brought under the new system, and it was settled before a panel could issue a decision. = = The lack of a d= efinitive GATT/WTO panel interpretation on the justiciability of measures i= nvoked under the security exceptions has left a loophole to = be filled by alternative interpretations. The purpose = 0;of this paper is to provide g= uidance on the question of justiciability of Article XXI, security exceptio= ns. &#= xa0;The = paper analyzes the preparatory works of Article XXI, along with its subsequ= ent interpretation by member States in GATT/WTO forums. Additionally, consideration= s by the International Court of Justice will be provided. Academic opinions and relevant State practice re= garding Article XXI will complement the discussion. <= /p>II. = Artic= le XXI: A Self-Judging Clause According to Stephan Schill and Robyn Briese, self-judging clauses are =E2= =80=9Cprovisions in international leg= al instruments by means of which States retain the right to escape or derog= ate from an international oblig= ation based on unilateral considerations and based on their subjective appr= eciation of whether the circums= tances required for the invocation of the clause exist=E2=80=9D4</span= >. For Schill= and Briese, self-judging clauses possess two identifiable characteristics: they pr= ovide a unilateral opt-out from an international </s= pan>obligation = and they give the invoking State the discretion of determining whether the = elements for the opt-out have been fulfilled5</span= >. Schill and Briese follow the rules of interpretation of the Vi= enna Convention on the Law of Treaties (VCLT), specifically = Article 31(1), when asserting that self-judging </sp= an>clauses should clearly state that a= Contracting Party will retain the discretion to decide the scope and </spa= n> </spa= n>applicability of the provision (for = example, by using the words =E2=80=9Cif the State considers=E2=80=9D)</span= >6. = = The language of Article XXI fav= ors the conclusion that it is a self-judging provision. Since it is an </sp= an> </sp= an>exception, its invocation provides = an opt-out of GATT obligations. In addition, it uses the word <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">=E2=80=9C<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">nothing</sp= an>=E2=80=9D, and the wording of its sub-paragraphs (a) and (b) provide for t= he article=E2=80=99s invocation when a contracting party considers it necessary</sp= an>7. The content of this provision neither signals the = existence of an objective standard of review nor explicitly provides jurisdiction t= o the GATT/WTO for determining the righteousness of the measure. In contrast, Artic= le XX=E2=80=99s chapeau, which enshrines an <= /p>objective standa= rd of review, does provide the WTO with jurisdiction to examine various asp= ects of = an invocation under such exceptions, such as the necessity of the measure</= span>8. &#= xa0;4</span= >SCHILL, Stephan &= BRIESE, Robyn (2009): =E2=80=9CIf the State Considers: Self-Judg= ing Clauses in International Dispute Settlement=E2=80=9D, Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law, Vol. 13, p. 92. </spa= n> 5 <= /span>=C3=8Ddem, p. 68. 6 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 69-70. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;7 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">ALFORD, Roger P. (2001): =E2=80=9CThe Self-</s= pan>Judging WTO Security Exception=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">UTAH Law Review, No. 3, p. 759. </s= pan> 8 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1282. = 18 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAA= AANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQB= D6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQH= A2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" al= t=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />The self-judging character of Article XXI re= mains subject of academic and legal debate. This paper will offer contrasting positions and arguments re= garding the justiciability of the provision and the question of its self-judging character. III. Preparatory Works <= /p>Preparatory work= s, as supplementary means of interpretation9, are= relevant when dealing with the ambiguity surrounding the justiciability and self-= judging character of Article XXI, and the implausibility of resolving the question through the ordinary me= aning of the clause. In general, preparatory works provide useful insight in cases of ambiguity or obscuri= ty of legal provisions. Ultimat= ely, the analysis of the preparatory works of Article XXI will afford a rea= sonable interpretation of the a= rticle=E2=80=99s object and purpose as conceived by the GATT=E2=80=99s Cont= racting Parties. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">As evidenced b= y the first drafts of the GATT, the United States=E2=80=99 State Department= Proposal10 and the London D= raft11, States recognized the need to establish exceptions to the obliga= tions and general = principles th= at were going to be agreed upon in the new trade organization. The GATT 194= 7 eventually <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">separated general exceptions (Article XX) from security exceptions (Ar= ticle XXI); however it wasn=E2=80=99t originally conceived that way. In the New Yor= k Draft of Charter12, these exceptions were all included under =E2=80=9Cgeneral exceptions=E2=80=9D, as= follows: =E2=80=9CArticle 37 <= /span> <= /span>General exceptions to cha= pter V <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Subject to the re= quirement that such measures are not applied in a manner which <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">would constitute a m= eans of arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination between countries = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">where the same conditions prevail, or a disguised restriction on in= ternational trade, nothing in Chapter V shall be construed t= o prevent the adoption or enforcement by = any Member of mea= sures: (= a) &#x= a0;Necessary to protect public = morals; (b) For the purpose of protecting human, animal or pl= ant life or health, if correspo= nding domestic safeguards under similar conditions exist in the importing <= /span> <= /span>country; (c) </sp= an>Relating to fissionable materials; = = (d) Relating t= o the traffic in arms, ammunition and implements of war and to such = <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">traffic in other goods and materials as is carried on for the purpo= se of supplying a military establishment; &= #xa0;9 </spa= n>VIENNA CONVENTION ON THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969)= , Art. 32. 10 UNITED S= TATES OF AMERICA, DEPARTMENT OF STATE: =E2=80=9CProposals for Expansion o</= span>f World Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D (November 1945). <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;11 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: = =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of </= span>the First Session= of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/33 (December 1946). <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 12 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL:= =E2=80=9CConference on Trade and Employment, Report of <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > the Draf= ting Committee of the Preparatory Committee=E2=80=9D, E/PC/T/34 (March 1947= ). 19 <= /p><img src=3D"data:image/png;b= ase64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAA= AlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOy= WgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />(e) </span= >In time of war= or other emergency in international relations, relating to the <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> protection of the e= ssential security interests of a Member; (f) <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Relating to the importation or exportation o= f gold or silver; = (g) <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Necessary to secu= re compliance with laws or regulations which are not = ;inconsi= stent with the provisions of Chapter V, such as, those relating to customs = enforcem= ent, deceptive practices, and the protection of patents, trade marks and </= span> </= span>copyrights; (h) Relating to the products of prison labour; <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> (=E2=80=A6) = = (k) Undertaken = in pursuance of obligations under the United Nations Charter for the </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">maintenance or= restoration of international peace and security.=E2=80=9D13 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;If the article had remained= as originally presented, any measure otherwise prohibited and justified </= span> </= span>under sub-paragraphs (c), (d), (e= ), and (k) would also need to comply with the conditions imposed by = = the article=E2= =80=99s chapeau. In other words, measures justified under security exceptions cou= ld not have been <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">applied in a m= anner that would constitute arbitrary or unjustifiable discrimination betwe= en countries <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">where the same conditions prevail, or in a manner which constituted a = disguised restriction on international trade14</spa= n>. The only difference between the chapeau of Article 37, and th= e current text of Article XX of the GATT is insignificant. <= /span> The United States delegation proposed an amendment to the New= York Draft Charter, which suggested the exclusion of items = (c), (d), (e), (j) and (k) from Article 37, stating that this article relat= ed only to Chapter V, and their inclusion in a new article t= o be placed =E2=80=9Ctoward the end of the Charter <= /span>(=E2=80=A6) [making] these items= general exceptions to the entire charter=E2=80=9D<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >15. <= /span> <= /span>When subm= itting the proposal for the consideration of the commission discussing the = general = exceptions, the Chairman himself stated that the proposal intended to make = those sub-paragraphs apply to the Charter as a whole and not only to Chapter V</spa= n>16. During the discussion of these security <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">exceptions, the Netherlands delegate asked for clarification as to wha= t meaning would be given to the phrases emergency in inter= national relations and essential security interests</span= >, feeling th= ey could create a large loophole17. The United States=E2=80=99 (US) delegate att= empted to address the previous concerns, feeling an obligation to do so as they had originally drafted the= text of those provisions. He argued that the right or need of a Member to determine what their security i= nterests are and to take action accordingly should be unquestionable. In explaining what would constitute = an emergency in international relations, the US delegate gave as an example the res= trictions to imports and exports by his government during = W= orld War II. More significantly, he explained that during the drafting effo= rts the US recognized a 13 =C3= =8Ddem. 14 PAUW= ELYN, Joost H.B. et = al. (2016): International Trade Law <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">(W= olters Kluwer, 3rd ed.), p. 419. 15 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt"> UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, UNITED STATE= S DELEGATION TO THE UNITED NATIONS <= /span>ECONOMIC AND SOC= IAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CProposal submitted to the Second Session of the Prepa= ratory Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Employment=E2=80=9D, = E/PC/T/W/23 (May 1974), p. 5 (=E2=80=9CUS Proposal=E2=80= =9D). 16 UNITED NATIONS, ECON= OMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSecond Session of the Preparato= ry Committee of the U.N. Conference on Trade and Employment, 25th mtg. of = Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/25 (July 1947), p. 39. </span= >17 UNITED NATIONS, ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CSeco= nd Session of the Preparatory Committee of the U.N. Conference o= n Trade and Employment, 33rd mtg. of Comm=E2=80=99n A, E/PC/T/A/PV/33 (July= 1947), p. 19 (=E2=80=9CVerbatium of 33rd Meeting<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">=E2=80=9D). 20 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUa= B99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" widt= h=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">need for balance. The exceptions could not be too tight as to prohibi= t measures =E2=80=9Cneeded purely for security reasons=E2=80=9D nor too broad as to= permit the pretext of security to allow =E2=80=9Canything under the </span= > </span= >sun=E2=80=9D18. Continuing the discussion = of the US proposal, the commission then proceeded to consider the <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">introductory paragraph for the new article. The introductory text for= the new article disposed: =E2=80=9CNothing in this Charter shall be construed to r= equire any Member=E2=80=A6=E2=80=9D19. The Chairman opened the <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>floor for discussion on the issue of the= possibility of reviewing measures invoked under these exceptions. Special weight is given to the remark= s by the delegation who introduced the amendment. The US delegate stated that a Member who invokes such ex= ceptions would not violate the Charter, but if that unilateral action affected another Member =E2=80=9Cth= at member would have the right to seek redress of some kind under Article 35=E2=80=9D20= . Article 35 = of the New York Draft referred to dispute settlement within the organization. The Australian representativ= e suggested the inclusion of either a paragraph or a note that would further clar= ify that the security exceptions did not conflict with Article <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 3521= . <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">After receiving assurances by the US delegation that the lack of conf= lict was =E2=80=9Cperfectly clear=E2=80=9D22, the Australian representative withdrew his reservation. S= ubsequently, the proposal was approved. The content of Article XXI as we know it today was settled in the = Geneva Final Act of October 30, 1947 and it has never been amended23. Needless t= o say, the current language of the article is almost identical <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> to the US=E2=80=99 p= roposal. After examining the di= scussions leading up to the adoption of this article, it is possible to ass= ert the = following conclusions. The decision to relocate the security exceptions fro= m the general provision to a separate article gives us stron= g indications that the Contracting Parties wished these exceptions to </spa= n> = be granted a = special treatment. The parties also recognized their individual right to de= termine what <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">constitutes a secu= rity interest while at the same time asserting that the article would be ju= sticiable. IV. Article XXI Discussions in the GATT/WT= O System Very few cases have been subject to a formal d= ispute settlement procedure under Article XXI </span= >exceptions. Even though GATT/WTO pane= ls have not been able to issue binding jurisprudence, it is relevant to reproduce some of the discussions = that took place around those formal complaints. Additionally, further recollection of the opinions of memb= er States at council meetings regarding the scope of the article will provide impor= tant insight. During the Third Session of the GATT, Czechosl= ovakia requested a decision under Article XXIII </sp= an>regarding whether the US had failed= to meet its GATT obligations by issuing export licenses24= . The = = US=E2=80=99 defense was based on Artic= le XXI, arguing the export licenses were being issued to products they </sp= an> </sp= an>18 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 20-22. 19 </spa= n>US Proposal (1974). <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 20 Verbatium of 33rd Meeting <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">(1= 947), p. 26-27. 21 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 27-28= . = 22 =C3=8Ddem. = 23 WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, SECRETARIAT (2012): =E2=80=9CGATT= Analytical Index =E2=80=93 Guide to GATT Law and = ;Practice=E2=80= =9D (=E2=80=9CAnalytical Index=E2=80=9D). 24 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REQUEST FOR A DECISION UNDER = ART. XXIII BY CZECHOSLOVAKIA: =E2=80=9CUnited States <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GATT/CP.3/33 (May 1949). 21 <spa= n style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:19"><img s= rc=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAA= ABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACcRJREFUeJzt3bGKXGUYxvHnmz= nGVSsxkCADVumsFUvvwMobUHMN3oid3oFtihQpvAdBBZvIgmAlkmSTzc5509qsTGTJN+/w+9Vf8= ZR/zineBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAjsSYPaCJW0nuJNnMHkJ7F0n+mj0CgN6W2QOauJvkfpL3Zg+hvZ+T/DB7BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAHQ1Zg84BVU1knyY5J3ZWwCguTXJn2OMi9lDjtkye8ApO= D8/P9vtdt8l+XT2FgDorKqe7vf7r5L8NHvLMRNwN2C326WqPhhj3J29BQCae7Isy63ZI47dZvYA= AABej4ADAGhGwAEANCPgAACaEXAAAM0IOACAZgQcAEAzAg4AoBkBBwDQjEsMB6iqO0m+SHJ2zZM= lSa3r+vubWwXAKamqR+5/JkleXF5e/jF7xLFzzP4AVfVJkgdJbs/eAsDJ+miMIVw4iF+oAADNCD= gAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNOKV1mGdV9UuS92cPAeA0jTEuZ= 28AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOBfxuwBp6KqliTL7B0A0FwleTnGWGcPOWaC4wZU1Tb= Jl0k+m70FAJp7keT7JL/OHnLMBNzN2Cb5PMnXs4cAQGdV9WSM8TAC7j9tZg8AAOD1CDgAgGYEHA= BAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwgKp6N8m9JG9d82S7rus+yW9vbhVAf= 2OMl0mez97BUXmW5J/ZI46dgDvMx0keJLl93YPNxsdMgP/hxyTfjDH+nj0EOlEdAADNCDgAgGYE= HABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNuMRwmH1VPU1yNnsIwCkZYzxPUrN3QDc= C7jCP13X9drvdvj17CMApubq6erwsy8XsHQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAABwA14BILZoqU31spUAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />considered could poten= tially be used by a military establishment25. When the issue was discuss= ed with = the members, the Czech delegate protested that because the US=E2=80=99 inte= rpretation of =E2=80=9Cwar materials=E2=80=9D was </= span>so broad there was no way to know= what the term actually covered26. The British delegate argued that </sp= an> </sp= an>each State =E2=80=9Cmust have the l= ast resort on questions relating to its own security=E2=80=9D and, as such,= the &= #xa0;Czechoslovakian complain= t should be dismissed27. The members voted on the= complaint and the majority found that the US had not failed= to carry out its GATT obligations. In 1961 Ghana considered th= e Portuguese=E2=80=99 presence in Angola as a threat to African peace, and = = justifie= d the establishment of a boycott on Portuguese goods under Article XXI (b) = (iii). Specifically, Ghana=E2=80=99s interpretation of the article entailed that ea= ch country was to be the =E2=80=9Csole judge=E2=80=9D of what was <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'"> </= p>necessary for its security interests, an= d added that the threat which prompted those measures could be either perceived or apparent28</sp= an>. In this = instance, the issue of GATT jurisdiction over Article XXI claims was not raised29. Sweden, in 1976, placed a global import quota for= certain footwear30 justified under Article XXI. = At the time, Sweden was facing a decrease in domestic produc= tion and determined that the maintenance = of a minimum domestic production capacit= y in t= he footwear industry was =E2=80=9Cindispensable in order to secure the provision of= essential products necessary to meet basic needs in case of war or other <= /span> emergency= in international relations=E2=80=9D31. Even thou= gh Sweden offered to consult bilaterally with </span= >affected members, and despite the quo= ta was in place for only two years, this situation exemplifies the <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>complexities of national security excep= tions. As Raj Bhala has accurately stated, =E2=80=9C[t]here are cases in </= span> </= span>which comm= ercial and national security interests are so intertwined that a bright lin= e between the two interests can=E2=80=99t be drawn=E2=80=9D32. This is just one = example of how almost anything can be justified, rightfully or wrongfully, as essential for national secur= ity. &= #xa0;The European Communities= (EC), Canada, and Australia applied a total ban on imports from <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >Argentina after the 1982 Falklands/Malvi= nas conflict. They justified the measure under Article XXI and said the exercise of rights under this exce= ption was not subject to notification, justification, or approval33 by other members. Argentina argued = that a failure to notify trade restrictions was not only a violation of fundamental GATT obligations but a= lso a lack of respect for all Contracting Parties34. The Brazilian delegate sided with Argentina and s= tated that while every member has the right to 25 GENER= AL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, REPLY BY THE UNITED STATES DELEGATION: <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Issue of Export Licenses=E2=80=9D<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">, GATT/CP.3/38 (June 1949). <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">26= GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, THIRD SE= SSION OF THE CONTRACTING PARTIES: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Twenty</s= pan>-Second Meeting=E2=80=9D, GATT/CP. 3/SR.22 (June 1949). </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">27 =C3=8Ddem, p. 7= . 28 GENERAL AGR= EEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, NINETEENTH SESSION OF THE CONTRACTING <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> PARTIES= : =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Twelfth Session=E2=80=9D, SR.19/12 (Decemb= er 1961), p. 196. 29 SCHOLEMA= NN, Hannes L. & OHLHOFF, Stefan (1999): =E2=80=9CConstitutionalization and Dispute Settlement in the WTO= : = National Security as an Issue of Competence=E2=80=9D, A= merican Journal of International Law, Vol. 93, pp. 424, 436. </sp= an> 30 Analytical Index (2012)<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= , p. 603. 31 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TAR= IFFS AND TRADE, NOTIFICATION BY THE SWEDISH DELEGATION: </= span>=E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Sweden =E2=80=93 Import Restrictions on Certain Footwear=E2=80= =9D, L/4250 (November 1975), p. 3. 32 <= /span>BHALA, Raj (1998): =E2=80=9C</span= >National Security and International Trade Law: W= hat the GATT Says, and what the United States Does=E2=80=9D, University of Pennsylvani= a Journal of International Economic Law, Vol 19, pp. 263, 273. = <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">33 </sp= an>GENERAL AGREEMENT O= N TARIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CTrade Restrictions Affecting Argenti= na Applied for Non-economic Reasons=E2=80=9D, C/M/157 (June 1982= ), p. 10. 34 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 11-12. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">22 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base64= ,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSF= lzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/W= ojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D= "808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />determine what their essential secur= ity interests are, justification had to be provided in cases where no </spa= n> </spa= n>involvement of security interests we= re apparent35. Although a panel was not establish= ed, this discussion led the Contracting Parties to adopt the= Decision concerning article XXI of the General Agreement36</span= >. The </span= > </span= >document provi= des that when a measure is taken under Article XXI, Contracting Parties mus= t be notified, subject only to the exceptions in Article XXI= (a). However, it still left significant loopholes. = It neith= er provided an objective standard by which a panel could evaluate an Articl= e XXI claim nor defined =E2=80=9Creasons of security=E2=80= =9D. It was also of a temporary character, until the Contracting Parties </= span> decided to= make a formal interpretation of the article. More significantly, it was a = missed opportunity for members = to provide clarification on the issue of justiciability. Instead, they dete= rmined that all <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">contracting par= ties affected by an Article XXI measure retained their full rights under th= e GATT. = Among those rights remains to bring forth a complaint to a dispute settleme= nt body and receive a determination on the righteousness of = the measure. The document, therefore, seems to echo the &= #xa0;position taken by the me= mbers during the preparatory works regarding Article XXI not being in </spa= n> </spa= n>conflict with= Article XXIII. In 1985, the US imposed a trade embargo aga= inst Nicaragua37, prompting the latter to bring a= complai= nt before the GATT Council. Nicaragua asked the Council to condemn the emba= rgo and request the US to revok= e the measures on the grounds that these were taken as a coercion tool for = = political reasons38</s= pan>. The Nicaraguan representative added that it was =E2=80=9Cab= surd to suggest that Nicaragua, a small and underdeveloped = country, could pose a threat to the national security of one of the most </= span> powerful countries in the world=E2=80=9D, and further noted th= at there was currently no armed conflict between </s= pan>them39.= The US justified the embargo based on Article XXI (b) (iii) and sustained = that proper notification of the measure was provided to the members. The US rejecte= d the GATT=E2=80=99s jurisdiction to judge political or security issues, reinforcing their claim that the = organization could not approve or disapprove measures deemed to be necessary for the safeguard of national= security interests40. In re= gards to the jurisdiction of the GATT, Australia supported the US=E2=80=99 = challenge and added that the ap= propriate forum for discussions of security issues was the United Nations S= ecurity Council41. The EC ap= proached the question differently, by simply stating that Article XXI of GA= TT was self-judging. However, they also noted that in exercising this discretion, m= embers should act responsibly, and with = discernment and m= oderation, in order to avoid arbitrary invocations42. Nineteen out of th= e forty-three <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">countries who addressed the Panel supported the self-judging interpre= tation43. In contrast, Poland and 35 =C3=8Ddem, p. 12. </p= >36 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE: =E2= =80=9CDecision concerning article XXI of the General </span= >Agreement=E2=80=9D, L= /5426 (December 1982). 37 UNITED STATE= S OF AMERICA, Executive Order No. 12513, (05/01/1985). </= span>38 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRAD= E, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States - Trade measures affecting </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Ni= caragua=E2=80=9D, C/M/188 (June 1985), p. 2. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">39 =C3=8Ddem, p. 3.= 40 =C3=8Ddem, p= p. 4-5. 41 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 12. 42 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 14. 43 ALFORD (2001), p. 713. </= span>23 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB/1JREFUeJzt2MEJAlEQBcFeFEEv5mAo5h+CYA5eRTACQdjD8KEqgmZOjykAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIAftumARVyqW3WYDmF5r+o5HQHA2= o7TAYu4VvfqPB3C8h4ZcADs5AP3n6065V7s96ne0xEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACv5AsAiBhzfolD7AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"62= 4" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />C= hile rejected the argument that the GATT was not competent to know and deci= de Article XXI claims44. There were also significant arguments = against the self-judging character of the article. The Cuban delegate, siding with = Nicaragua, stressed that whenever invoking Article XXI, parties should be <= /span> <= /span>required to justify it with rele= vant facts in order to prevent abuses of the system45. Similarly, but </= span> </= span>providing more specificity, India= sustained that a member invoking Article XXI (b) (iii) should provide </sp= an> </sp= an>a nexus between the measure taken a= nd its security interest46. Brazil further noted that the invocation </s= pan> </s= pan>of the article =E2=80=9Cshould only be e= xercised in light of other international obligations such as those assumed = = under th= e UN charter=E2=80=9D47. A panel was established to decide on the US trade embar= go against Nicaragua, but its terms of = reference preclud= ed it from examining or judging the validity or motivation for the invocati= on of Article XXI (b) (iii) by the US48<span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">. These narrow terms were the result of a compromise, given the US=E2= =80=99 o= pposition to the establishment of a panel if this provision was to be evalu= ated. Nonetheless, the panel still made some observations about the article. They s= uggested that even tough trade embargoes are = contrary to GATT principles of certain= ty and trade liberalization, the purpose of the article was not <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = to make parties forego measures needed t= o protect their essential security interests49. The most relevant </sp= an> </sp= an>contribution= of the report was a statement stressing that a party invoking a measure un= der Article XXI should carefully weigh its security needs a= gainst the need to maintain stable trade relations50. Despite the report was not adopted51, the panel implied the standard of rev= iew under which an Article XXI = measure would be analyzed. They would consider if the member =E2=80=9Ccaref= ully=E2=80=9D, perhaps reasonably, weighted the balance of their alleged national security interest being = protected and the trade relationship with the member subjected to the measure. The = panel=E2=80=99s view of a =E2=80=9Ccareful=E2=80=9D balance when <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">deciding the measu= re was the echo of statements of a significant number of States who conside= red &#= xa0;that= the invocation of the article should be made with utmost prudence, especia= lly when invoked by a developed country. &= #xa0;The first and only compl= aint brought to a WTO panel has been United States-The Cuban Liberty and </= span> </= span>Democratic Solidarity Act. The EC= filed a request for consultations after the US adopted the Cuban <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Liberty and Democ= ratic Solidarity Act52. The US, following their same argument as in prev= ious cases, <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">44 <= /p>GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TA= RIFFS AND TRADE, COUNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States - Trade measures= affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, C/M/188 (June 19= 85), p. 8. 45 = =C3=8Ddem, p. 5. 46 </span= >=C3=8Ddem, p. 11. 47 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 7-8. = 48 GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, CO= UNCIL: =E2=80=9CUnited States =E2=80=93 Trade measures affecting= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Nicaragua - Panel established under Article XXIII:2=E2=80=9D, C= /M/196 (Apr. 1986). 49 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >GENERAL AGREEMENT ON TARIFFS AND TRADE, PANEL REPORT (1986): =E2=80=9C</sp= an>United States =E2=80=93 T= rade measures affecting Nicaragua=E2=80=9D, = L/6053, = =E2=81=8B5.16. 50 =C3=8Ddem. = <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">51 </sp= an>The panel ultimatel= y concluded that, as it couldn=E2=80=99t analyze this provision, they could= not find the US neither non- compliant nor compliant with its = GATT obligations. See =C3=ADdem, =E2=81=8B5.3. 52 = WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, REQUEST FOR THE ESTABLI= SHMENT OF A PANEL BY THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES AND T= HEIR MEMBER STATES: =E2=80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty an= d Democratic Solidarity Act=E2=80=9D, WT/DS38/2 (October 1996)= . = 24 </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jENAgEQAMElgeJpMEKHfwsoeAeYwAHt5ciMg= i23AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4D9dpgOWeFSv6jYdwnqf6j0dAcBu1+mAJe7VszqmQ1jvzMABAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAP30BKAkD775/hCYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624"= height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />i= nvoked Article XXI to justify its measure53. This was th= e first opportunity for a panel to fully analyze </s= pan>Article XXI and issue a binding re= port. The EC did not make counterarguments to the invocation of <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = the provision54; perhaps because they= had been on the other side of the dispute before and used the <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">same exception to ju= stify several measures. The parties settled the case. = 0;V= . Considerations by the International Court of Jus= tice It is worth mentioning how another dispute settlement body, the Internati= onal Court of Justice (ICJ), has understood Article XXI in light of similar nationa= l security exception clauses in bilateral treaties. = Nicaragu= a brought a complaint to the ICJ alleging, inter alia, that the trade embargo im= posed upon them by the US was i= n open violation of the obligations acquired under the bilateral treaty on = = Freedom, Commerce, and Navigati= on (FCN). The FCN contained a clause that stated that "the present Treaty shall not preclude the applicati= on of measures ... (d) necessary to fulfill the obligations of a Party for the maintenance or restoration = of international peace and security, or necessary to protect its essential security interests." The Court = compared the FCN=E2=80=99s security exceptions with those = in the GATT. They manifested that the GATT=E2=80=99s Article= XXI contained the phrase it [the member] considers necessary, and the FCN, on the ot= her hand, did not make reference =E2=80=9Cto what the party =E2=80=98consid= ers &#= xa0;necessary=E2=80=99 for that= purpose=E2=80=9D55. In its decision, the ICJ found the trade embargo vi= olated the FCN and that the sec= urity exception clause was not self-judging. The Court also implied, </span= >au co= ntraire, that Article <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">XXI of the GATT= was self-judging. In the Oil P= latforms Case56, the ICJ addressed a controversy dealing preliminarily w= ith a similar <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">exception under a FCN treaty. In this regard, the Court maintained th= e opinion that such provisions were not self-judging and therefore subject of an = objective standard of review57. However, in thi= s case the ICJ did not offer any analogy with the GATT secur= ity exceptions clause. It is possible to infer from the ICJ= =E2=80=99s statements that security exceptions are justiciable in the cases= concerned (Oil Platforms and Nicaragua). However, while ack= nowledging the justiciability of such exceptions under FCN treaties, the ICJ clearl= y distinguished Article XXI of the GATT and inferred its self-judging character. VI. &#= xa0;Academic Debate 53 WORLD T= RADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT BODY (1996): =E2=80=9CUnite= d States - The Cuban Liberty and Democratic Solidarity Act - Request by th= e European Communities and their member States for the establishment of </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal">a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/24. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;54 ORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, DISPUTE SETTLEMENT B= ODY (1997): =E2=80=9CUnited States - The Cuban Liberty <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= and Demo= cratic Solidarity Act - Request by the European Communities and their membe= r States for the establishment of a panel=E2=80=9D, WT/DSB/M/26. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 55 </span= > MILITARY AND PARAMILITARY ACTIVITIES IN AND AGAINST NICARAGUA <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal">(Nicar. v. U.S.), &= #xa0;Internat= ional Court of Justice. Judgment, June 27, 1986, I.C.J. Rep. 14, <sp= an class=3D"stl150" style=3D"letter-spacing:-0.05pt">=E2=81=8B282= . See also Opinion of Jose E. Alvarez, Sempra <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Energy Int'l & Camuzzi I= nt'l v. Republic of Argentina, ARB/02/16 and ARB/03/02, p. 6 (9/12/2005). A= vailable at: http://ita.law.uvic.ca/documents/CamuzziSempraAlvarezOpinion.= pdf. 56 OIL PLATFORMS <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Iran v. U.S.), International Court of Justice. Judgment on the Merits, Nov= ember 6, 2003. 57 ALFORD (2001), p. 41.= <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt">25 </p= ><img src=3D"data:image/png;bas= e64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAl= wSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACNVJREFUeJzt3SGOlFEQhdFb3QQxhBASCALFsAcWgUSyDRyrQb= IBFJolIMCwBWbSATOdYgVMGjPvr+Yc/cQnr3hJJQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADAVtTqgCGeJ3mb5GJ1CON9S/JxdQQAsxlwp7lIcplkvzqE8= a6T/FgdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABwq1odcC66+2mSl6s7AG= C4Y5LvVXW1OmTL7q0OOCOvk3xYHQEAk3X3oareJPm8umXLdqsDAAD4NwYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAM= AYcAMAwBhwAwDAGHADAMAYcAMAwBhwAwDAuMZygu/dJHuSWwXs8Hu/vdrvD3VUBW1RV3d3H1R0w= VVUdktys7tg6A+40L5K8T/Lwbw/2+/2z7v59d0nAFnX3r6p6t7oDBrtJ8nV1xNY5Zn+C7n6V5FO= SJ6tbgM37WVWPV0cA580fOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDDgAgGEMOACAYQw4AIBhDD= gAgGGc0jrNdXd/SfJodQiweW4iAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8H/4A42VM8T23pY0AAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" widt= h=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The academic deba= te around the scope and extent of Article XXI of the GATT is diverse. While= some = scholars advocate for th= e justiciability of Article XXI, others argue that such provision cannot be= = ;subjected to the GATT=E2=80=99= s dispute settlement dispositions. Raj Bhala favors the latter interpretati= on. He contends that Article XX= I (b) provides an effective solution to this debate, in the context that it= s own = language purposely inser= ts the word =E2=80=98it=E2=80=99, and therefore =E2=80=9Cno WTO panel or ot= her adjudicatory body, has any = right to determine whether a measure =E2=80=A6 satisfies its requirements= =E2=80=9D58. He shares the defense made by the EC regarding the trade embargo = against Argentina, which asserts that the sanctioning = 0;member does not have to notif= y or justify to, or seek approval or ratification from any Member when </sp= an> </sp= an>invoking Article XXI. He sustains t= hat the Decision Concerning Article XXI <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">does not impose on Members an obligation to notify since its wording lets the= m decide whether notification is =E2=80=9Cpossible=E2=80=9D59</spa= n>. Although = = Bhala=E2=80=99s argument is cer= tainly valid, the Decision Concerning Article XXI <= /span>should be read as imposing an </span= >obligation to notify while giving the= sanctioning member the discretion to determine which details will <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>not be disclosed. Bhala also suggests that wh= ile nothing prevents a State from bringing a claim against a member = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">invoking Arti</= span>cle XXI, a WTO panel is not likely to adjudicate on the meri= ts the claimant=E2=80=99s invocation of that article60. He says it is likely t= hat the WTO will keep interpreting its terms of reference narrowly, = = as in the US-Ni= caragua report. Bhala suggests that good faith of the members is the only way to avoid abusive invocations of articl= e XXI</s= pan>61. Nevertheless, he advocates for the delimitation of Article XXI (b), bas= ed on a reasonableness standard that would objectively evaluate whether a reasonabl= e government facing the same circumstances would have invoked the provision. This a= rgument appears to be in contradiction with his self-judging interpretation of Arti= cle XXI. If the article is not justiciable, the question remains open </spa= n> = on who should= delimit subparagraph (b) and who should determine the reasonableness of th= e measure. Bhala does not clari= fy this. For Bhala=E2=80=99s claim of delimitation to be valid, it would ha= ve to at least <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">require Article = XXI (b) to be justiciable. Roge= r Alford analyzed the preparatory works and also advocates for the self-jud= ging characteristic of the exce= ption, concluding that the members=E2=80=99 intention was for Article XXI t= o be invoked in limited circumstances but for them to reserve the right to determin= e when they would invoke it62. Contrary to Bhala and Alford, other commentators = have elaborated strong arguments in favor of the </s= pan>justiciabil= ity of article XXI. Particularly, the opinions of Lindsay, Scholemann and O= hlhoff, and Akande and Williams are noteworthy. <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> Akande and Williams = argue that allowing Article XXI to be self-judging would be to undermine th= e = 0;legal effects of the GATT sin= ce it will leave compliance with obligations to the members=E2=80=99 discre= tion63. Scholemann and Ohlho= ff sustain that allowing members to block the jurisdiction of the dispute <= /span> <= /span>settlemen= t bodies just by invoking this article would be to transform a substantive = issue into a 58 BHALA (1998), pp= . 268-69. 59 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 270-271. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">60 =C3=8Ddem, p 279. </= span>61 =C3=8Ddem, p 313. 62 </spa= n>ALFORD (2001), p. 699. 63 AKANDE, = Dapo & WILLIAMS, Sope (2003): =E2=80=9CInternationa= l Adjudication on National Security Issues: What Role for <= /span>the WTO=E2=80=9D, Virginia Journal of International= Law, Vol. 43, pp. 365, 384. 26 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+pJREFUeJ= zt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer= /pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwH2cFFwEA9= 2pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"po= sition:absolute" />procedural one, and would contradict the WTO=E2=80=99s purpose= of strengthening the multilateral system64. They further argue that because the DSU applies to all cov= ered agreements, including the GATT, and there is no explicit reference excluding A= rticle XXI, it is clear that a panel has jurisdiction to decide <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> these claims= 65. = This argument is very compelling because, once again, members had the oppor= tunity to exclude the invocations of security exceptions from the DSU. Furthermore, they = label as =E2=80=9Cclearly justiciable=E2=80=9D those situations where there is no r= isk to a security interest or whenever a measure has no effect protecting said int= erest66. Nonetheless, this assertion remains dubious at best. The determ= ination = of essential security interests is subjective to each country and their soc= iopolitical circumstances; it is not possible for those limits to be =E2=80=9Cclear= =E2=80=9D. Scholemann and Ohlho= ff tend to favor the position that while panels should have an interpretati= ve &#x= a0;role, they would not have de= finitional authority67. Clarifying this interpret= ation, Lindsay pointed out that it is up to members to decid= e what measure to apply, while leaving to a WTO panel the jurisdiction <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>to objectively review when <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the measure would = be applied68. It should be noted that a member, when making a decision to protect its security interes= ts, does not only analyze the measure to be taken but also the correct timing and duration of it. Separa= ting the substance of the measure from the member=E2=80=99s determination of when to apply it would likely= render an incomplete and flawed analysis. Lindsay suggests that the US =E2=80=93 Czechoslovaki= a and EC =E2=80=93 Yugoslavia disputes are clear indications that Article XXI is subject to Article XXIII<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">69= . The Czechoslovakia case was significant since the GATT <= /span> Council did not deny jurisdiction to make a determination on = the issue. The EC, in the dispute with = Yugoslavia, never= objected the establishment of a panel, indicating that they would accept t= he panel=E2=80=99s jurisdiction to decide on the matter. The latter, in addition to= Contracting Parties=E2=80=99 statements during <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the preparatory wo= rks and the Decision Concerning Article XXI<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, have driven = Lindsay to suggest that it is u= nlikely a panel would reject jurisdiction70. Furthermore, he warns about= the large loophole that would = be created in the system if the WTO were to reject its jurisdiction on Arti= cle XXI. VII. Standard</sp= an> = ;of Review The panel in its non-b= inding report in US =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, discussed ab= ove, hinted which standard of r= eview would be applicable in the event of having the terms of reference to = do so. T= he panel would analyze if the member =E2=80=9Ccarefully=E2=80=9D weighted t= he balance of the security interest and = the trade relation with the member subje= ct of the measure. Nevertheless, it would be na=C3=AFve not to <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">stress that typicall= y nations value their security interests much higher than its trade relatio= ns. Consequently, while a member may give careful thought to= its trade relations before imposing a = measure based on Article XXI, the balanc= e will generally tilt towards safeguarding its alleged national <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = security. 64 SCHOLEM= ANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 439-440. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 65 =C3=8Ddem, p. 441. </p= >66 =C3=8Ddem, p. 443. 67 =C3= =8Ddem, p. 448. 68 LINDSAY (2003), p. 1= 287. 69 =C3=8Ddem, pp. 1293-1294. </spa= n> 70 =C3=8Ddem. 27 </sp= an> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnA= AAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACQ1JRE= FUeJzt3T1uFEEUhdH7WiMjILH4yUiQWANbYBeInMUQswx2QMIiyAgNJCDZGAfTRUBA6MEgqt9wj= lRZBzfrT62WKgEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIMnTJJ+TDMf5w/MmAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD= /qZo94JiMMU6TnM7eAQCNrUk+VdX32UO2bDd7wJF5keTl7BEA0NhFfr5L380esmUC7i9a1/X+si= xPZu8AgK7GGOdVdWf2jq1bZg8AAOD3CDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAm= hFwAADNuInhAGOMh0meJbl1zaOP1nV9/w8mAcCxutzv95ezR2ydgDvM4ySvkjy47sFl8VETAG5q= jHG+2+1uz96xdWoDAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4AAAmhFwAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZNzE= cZj/GOBtjXM0eAp1U1VWSdfYOoJWLJN9mj9g6AXeYparu5YCrtIBfqup5krezdwCtjCRfZo/YOg= F3mEpyUlUns4dAM1+r6uPsEQDHxj9wAADNCDgAgGYEHABAMwIOAKAZAQcA0IyAAwBoRsABADQj4= AAAmhFwAADNuInhMGfrur5Ocnf2EOhkWZYPszcAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAA3MQPvAvLEyBY6Z8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Cann71= , joined by A= kande and Williams72, hold that the determination of the necessity of a = measure for security reasons is= subjective and as such should be determined by the members themselves and = = not be r= eviewable by third parties. They also concur that a panel should have the j= urisdiction to reviewing the measure under a good faith standard. Akande and Will= iams add that in order to properly analyze the member=E2=80=99s good faith, a panel= would have to review the purpose of the measure73. Both positions seem contradictory. In order to determ= ine good faith under their proposed standard, and to review the purpose of the meas= ure, a panel must do some analysis of the necessity of the measure. = <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Furthermore, Cann argues that applying this good faith standard should be= enough to =E2=80=9Cprohibit 74 d= iscriminatory actions=E2=80=9D . But, if the Contracting Parties had intended for = security exception invocations to be non-discriminatory they would have left them u= nder Article XX and subjected to the chapeau test. Akande and Williams suggest that= in order to comply with the good faith standard, the invoking member =E2=80=9Cmust genuinely believe that= the measure taken is necessary to protect its national security interests=E2=80=9D= . They argue a panel should examine whether the member considered an <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = essential securit= y interest threatened and whether the measure was a proportional response t= o the th= reat75. However, this interpretation would give panels too much authorit= y to determine what is not an =E2=80=9Cessential security interest=E2=80=9D, what i= s not a =E2=80=9Cthreat=E2=80=9D, and what is not =E2=80=9Cproportionate re= sponse=E2=80=9D; these determinations should always be left = to the States=E2=80=99 since an objective evaluation of these elements is <= /span> highly unlikely. Scholemann and Ohlhoff, who also propose a good fa= ith standard of review, contend that it should be applied by analyzing the reasonableness of the measure</= span>76. Akande and Williams reject the reasonableness standard = on the basis that the drafters could have included this requirement but </s= pan> </s= pan>refrained from doing so. Using the= same argument, we could rebuttal their good faith standard proposition on the grou= nds that drafters could also have included a good faith requirement. </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">The scholars t= hat support the good faith standard do recognize the challenges in applying= it. Difficulty <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">of proving a go= vernment acted in bad faith77 and who bears the= burden78 are but a few of them. VIII. State Practice The WTO Agreement states that the organization =E2= =80=9Cshall be guided by the decisions, procedures and &= #xa0;c= ustomary practices=E2=80=9D79 of its members. With this clause, the WT= O acknowledged the prospective = effects of State practice vis-a-vis the treaty. The VCLT = provides for general and supplementary rules 71 CANN, Wesley A. Jr. (2001): =E2=80=9CCreating= Standards and Accountability for the Use of the WTO Security Exception: </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">R= educing the Role of Power-Based Relations and Establishing a New = Balance between Sovereignty and Multilateralism=E2=80=9D, <= /span>Yale Jour= nal of International Law, Vol. 26, pp. 413, 480. = 72 AKANDE & WILLIAM (2003), pp. 398-399. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 73 =C3=8Ddem, p. 396. </p= >74 CANN (2001), p. 452. 75 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">A= KANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 399. 76 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >SCHOLEMANN & OHLHOFF (1999), pp. 443-445. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">77= =C3=8Ddem; AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 393. = ;78 AKANDE & WILLIAMS (2003), p. 394. &#x= a0;79 MARRAKESH AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING= THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Morocco (4/15/1994), Article 16. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 28 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAACIFJREFUeJzt3TFqFkAURtE7ksoi2KQSsgErNxA7s5W0rsTGvaRJkcZdWIR= gZ6MQAoIyKdyAPyRMJpzTP/jK270CAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAIBna= awesIl31ZfqzeohbO+6+rR6BAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAM/PWD0A4CWbc76uzqvT1VtY6nd1= Ncb4dujhnPN9dVZ9ry7HGPePPY79HK0eAPDCHVcX1cfVQ1hnzvlzjPGjOjjgqg/V5+q6+loJOHq= 1egAAAIcRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAmxFwAACbEXAAAJsRcAAAm/= HMHuAJzTmP+vfI/nj1Fpb6W92OMX4dejjnPKneVnfVzRjjz2OPAwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgP/3ABfrI= 9qkU1wNAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"pos= ition:absolute" />for treaty interpretation80. The general rule remains that a= treaty should be interpreted in light of the principle of good faith, its ordinary= meaning with due regard for the context, and its object and purpose. Nevertheless, the VCLT signals that together with the context, it= should be taken into account, inter alia, =E2=80=9Cany subsequen= t practice in the application of the treaty which establis= hes the = agreement of the parties=E2=80=9D81<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. The VCLT, sh= owing its own age, prompted the International Law Commission (ILC) to expand or clarify the scope and cont= ent of several of its provision. In 2014, the ILC developed a series of guidelines for the effects of subs= equent practice of States in relation to treaties82. In its report, special rapp= orteur Georg Nolte referred to the WTO Appellate Body=E2=80=99s report </sp= an> on Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II,= which offered a definition of subsequent practice in treaty interpretation as the sequence of acts or pronouncements that are =E2=80= =9Cconcordant, common, and <= /p>consistent=E2=80= =9D83. While acknowledging the position of the Ap= pellate Body, he asserted that such standard = establishes a high threshold under Art= icle 31 (3) (b) =E2=80=9Crequir[ing] a particularly broad-based, settled, = = and qualified form of collective pract= ice in order to establish agreement between the parties regarding <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>interpretation=E2=80=9D84</span= >. He further notes that the Appellate Body seems to have taken t= hat standard from Sir Ian Sinclair85, who considered the value of subsequent pra= ctice dependent on =E2=80=9Cthe extent to which it is concordant, common and consistent= =E2=80=9D. Subsequently, in EC =E2=80=94 = Comput= er Equipment, the Appellate Body loos= ened the criteria established in Japan =E2=80=93 Alcoholic Beverages II. It held that =E2=80=9C[t]he purpose of treaty interpretation is to establish the </span= >common [emphasis in original] intention = of the parties to the treaty. To establish this intention, the prior practice of on= ly one [emphasis in original] of = the parties may be relevant, but it is clearly of more limit= ed value than the practice of all parties=E2=80=9D<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >86. T= he Appellate <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Body implied that = in order for subsequent practice to be a legitimate mean of interpretation = it does = not need to be practiced by all members. Rather, the interpretative value i= ncreases in the measure more members engage in such practice. Therefore, the lack o= f a formal interpretation of the article, together with these provisions and statements, leads to the conc= lusion that pronouncements and = actions by a majority of states is the most legitimate and reliable mechani= sm to interpret the scope and applicability of Article XXI. = During t= he preparatory works discussions, the Contracting Parties seemed to have ac= corded a special treatment to Article XXI but nonetheless made it subject to judici= al review under the proper dispute settlement mechanisms. Due regard should be given to the statement by t= he US delegate, who shared that the security exceptions were not outside the scope = of the dispute settlement provisions. However, </spa= n>there has been an apparent shift fro= m that position. The parties=E2=80=99 statements and practice since the <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'"> </= p>GATT entered into= force seem to indicate that a significant number of States favor the posit= ion that 80 VIENNA CONVENTION ON= THE LAW OF TREATIES (VCLT), Vienna (May 23, 1969) Art. 31-32. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;81 =C3=8Ddem, Article 31 =E2=81=8B3(b). &#x= a0;82 UNITED NATIONS, INTERN= ATIONAL LAW COMMISSION: =E2=80=9CSecond Report on subsequent agreements and= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">subsequent practice in relation to the interpretation of treaties of Its = Sixty-Sixth Session=E2=80=9D, A/CN.4/671 (3/ 26/2014) (<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">ILC Report). 83 WORLD TRADE ORGAN= IZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1996): =E2=80=9CJapan =E2=80=94 Alcoholic B= everages II=E2=80=9D, = WT/DS8/AB/R, WT/DS10/AB/= R, WT/DS11/AB/R. 84 ILC Report, =E2=81=8B21. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">85= SINCLAIR, Ian (1984): The Vienna Convention on = the Law of Treaties (Manchester University Press), p. 137. </span= > 86 </sp= an> WORL= D TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (1998): =E2=80=9CEC =E2=80=94 C= omputer Equipment=E2=80=9D, WT/DS62/AB/R, WT/DS67/AB/R, WT/DS68/AB/R, </sp= an>=E2=81=8B= 93. </span= >29 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUh= EUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLgg= AAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4WsmSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB8= 4pgObOKqnuqcjrC9t7qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD81wJhPAIC+uXKoAAAAABJRU5Erk= Jggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolut= e" />the invocation of national security exception is enou= gh to preclude a panel from knowing and judging </sp= an>the righteousness of such measure. = = Close attention must also be pa= id to the frequency with which members have invoked Article XXI <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = and brought compl= aints under it. The few Article XXI cases brought to the GATT/WTO during it= s more t= han 60-year history evidences a lot of restraint from members in invoking s= ecurity exceptions. This restra= int, however, together with weak dispute settlement provisions that were in= place before <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">the adoption of t= he DSU, must be the principal reason panels and appellate bodies have not h= ad the opportunity to determine= the justiciability and scope of the article, much less its standard of rev= iew. &= #xa0;One reason for such rest= raint may be that States acknowledge that the ambiguity surrounding the </s= pan> </s= pan>justiciability of the articl</span= >e actually favors them. Scholars as Lindsay favor this =E2=80=98= constructive=E2=80=99 ambiguity, arguing that allowing members to address the secur= ity exception through less formal methods permits greater flexibility in timing and response, protects rea= l and perceived concerns over national sovereignty, and provides the necessary ch= ecks against abuse of these exceptions87. In the discussions regarding <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">United S= tates =E2=80=93 Trade Measures Affecting Nicaragua= a majority of States seemed </span= >to have agreed that an Article XXI in= vocation should be made in good faith and exercised with prudence; but leaving those determinations to eac= h member. As Alford has correctly pointed out, regardless a panel may interpret it = otherwise, Article XXI has been se= lf-judging88. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">IX. </spa= n> = Mit= igating Abuses The main argument of States who oppose t= he self-judging interpretation is that this determination will <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> lead to abuses and i= ts invocation could serve as a hard bargaining technique used by powerful m= embers a= gainst weak ones. These are valid concerns; nonetheless, States themselves = can prevent abuses by holding each other accountable in a number of ways. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Alford has suggested four mechanisms con= templated by the WTO which would help mitigating abuse of the clause. Under Article XXXV of the GATT, an= d upon the accession of a new member, a Contracting Party may declare their trading relations will not be= subject to GATT/WTO obligations89. Since a super-majority is needed to accede the organization, acco= rding to Alford the purpose of the article was to allow members who voted against the admission not to be = obliged towards the new member.= This opt-out, or non-application, provision has seldom been invoked. </spa= n> </spa= n>Just as the system lets members opt-= out of obligations, Article XXIV permits parties to enter into <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">preferential trade agreements (PTA) to furt= her liberalize trade between its members. Alford suggests that members of a PTA can= incorporate an objective security exception. This way, the invocation of <= /span> such secu= rity exception will be justiciable in relation to the PTA members, while th= e self-judging <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">standard will re= main for non-PTA members90. 87 LINDSAY (2003), p. 13= 12. 88 ALFORD (2001), p. 708. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 89 =C3=8Ddem, p. 726. </p= >90 =C3=8Ddem, p. 733. 30 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAAB= Pud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzkENAg= EQALGBkPsgABTiClenAgN8kbFZ0ipoAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwVy7TgSWO6lFdpyOs960+0wkAdrtNB5Z4= Vq/qPh1hvbN6TycAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFb4ARMGBADJpJB4AAAAAE= lFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolut= e" />Another mechanism a member can implement is altering = the discretionary tariff benefits given to other </s= pan>members. However, these discretion= ary tariff benefits can only be applied by developed countries <span= class=3D"stl19" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">vis- a-vis develo= ping countries91. Nonetheless, this alternative could prevent the over i= nvocation of Article XXI, since= a developed country could meet its objectives by removing or suspending a = tariff benefit <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">without the need= of invoking a security exception. The WTO also contemplates cases where a measure adopted is not contrary= to the covered agreements but = nonetheless nullifies or impairs benefits. In fact, when discussing the inc= lusion of this non- violation r= emedy92, the working party used the example of an= invocation under the security exceptions </p= >which would be pe= rmissible by the Charter but could nonetheless impair or nullify other memb= ers=E2=80=99 benefits93. In those cases, the working part= y continued, a member could bring a claim not on the grounds that the measure viola= tes the Charter, but on the basis of an impairment or nullification of </sp= an> benefits. Therefore, while a Panel could not review an Article X= XI measure, it would retain the jurisdiction determine whether there is an impairm= ent or nullification of benefits. The invoking member does not have to remove the measure, but the affecte= d party is entitled to damages94. Alford correctly argues that this is an exceptional remedy which =E2= =80=9Cshould be approached with caution=E2=80=9D95 and therefore should be invoked only for controversi= al national security invocations96. Member States also have the ability to solve the issues that prom= pt the adoption of Article XXI measures by recurring to alternate mechanisms other = than those contemplated in the GATT/WTO. = For example, the US reached an agreement= with the EC outside the GATT/WTO system, which led the latter to withdraw its WTO complaint. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Parties who are memb= ers of the same regional organization could attempt to discuss the issue an= d work o= ut a solution with the help of other members; or, they can use it as a plat= form to rally support for their position. Moreover, members must certainly look to = the United Nations to seek redress for = measures adopted for national security r= easons. Article 33 of the United Nations Charter mandates parties to any dispute which is likely to endang= er the maintenance of international peace and security to seek solutions through the appropriate means o= f pacific settlement of disputes. The Security Council, when it deems it necessary, can call upon the part= ies to solve their dispute through such means97. It can be argued that State=E2=80=99s real or perceiv= ed threat to its national security is likely to endanger or constitute a threat to = international peace and security. Consequently, if a State believes its nat= ional se= curity is compromised because of the actions another State, it could recur = to the United Nations system to= seek relief instead of imposing a GATT/WTO measure under Article XXI</span= >98. In fact, during = the preparatory works of the GATT the Co= ntracting Parties addressed which organization, if any, was 91 </= span>=C3=8Ddem, p. 741. 92 =C3=8Dde= m, p. 747. 93 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9C= Report of Working Party of Sub- Committee G of Committee VI on C= hapter VIII=E2=80=9D, E/CONF.2/C.6/W.30 (1/9/1948). &#x= a0;94 MARRAKESH= AGREEMENT ESTABLISHING THE WORLD TRADE ORGANIZATION, Understanding on </sp= an> Rules and Procedures Governing the Settlement of Disput= es Article 26 =E2=81=8B 1(b), Annex 2, (1994) (DSU). <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 95 </span= > WORLD = TRADE ORGANIZATION, APPELLATE BODY REPORT (2001): =E2=80=9CEuropean Communi= ties-Measures Affe= cting Asbestos and Asbestos-Containing Products=E2=80=9D, = WT/DSl35/AB/R, =E2=81=8B186. </span= >96 ALFORD (2001), p. 748. 97 </spa= n>UNITED NATIONS CHARTER, San Francisco (6/26/1945) Article 33, <= span class=3D"stl42" style=3D"font-size:10pt; letter-spacing:normal">=E2=81= =8B 2. 98 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Wi= th due regard to the imbalance that exists between countries with veto powe= r in the Security Council and those without it. </p= >31= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+tJREFUeJzt1rENwlAUwEBHKGU6FmBERmGzLJI6LSvQPX1xN4FLFwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMCEbTpgEa/qXR3TISzvrD7TEQCszcD9Zq+e1W= M6hOXd1TUdAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= wH/7AvqBBAONN6eIAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" sty= le=3D"position:absolute" />to determine the impact of political measures in the i= nternational trade system. They agreed it should to be the United Nations and not t= he trade organization. Particularly, the representatives of the United </sp= an> Kingdom and Greece stated that the trade organization was to be = created to deal with economic measures and not political matters, and as such the l= atter should be under the United Nations=E2=80=99 competence. The Greek delegate we= nt further by arguing that =E2=80=9Can economic measure taken for <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">political reasons was not properly speaking an economic measure but a= political measure and as such was not of the competence of the [trade] Organizat= ion=E2=80=9D99. The US delegate=E2=80=99s statement followed the = = same argument as the British and Greek= representatives, but emphasized that a political dispute was <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">to be dealt by the Un= ited Nations when the issue was within its jurisdiction, and that the Confe= rence=E2=80=99s function was not to take any stand on whether or not it supported = unilateral economic sanctions100. The Committee recommended drafting a specific = article that would clarify the relationship and </sp= an>jurisdiction of the new trade organ= ization and the United Nations101, but it never m= ade it to the final General Agreement. X. Conclusion <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-sp= acing:normal"> This paper = has attempted to gather the various, and contradictory, interpretations giv= en by several <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">sources regarding Article XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability. Any member ca= n request the establishment of a panel to </p= >analyze the valid= ity of an Article XXI exception, as they have this right under Article VI o= f the DSU, but we consider the panel should reach the conclusion that the invoking = member has the right to determine the appropriateness of the measure. A WTO panel s= hould not have the jurisdiction to define </p= >what does not constitute a national secu= rity interest, an essential security interest, or an emergency in <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>international rel= ations. Members must be the ones who determine what issues concern their na= tional s= ecurity and the measures to be taken in order to safeguard them. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >Although some arguments in favor of Arti= cle XXI=E2=80=99s justiciability are persuasive, particularly the fact <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >that members had = several opportunities to clarify or modify the article to make it expressly= self- j= udging, Article XXI should not be reviewable. If, as proposed by some schol= ars, a panel should have the jurisdiction only to determine the necessity or the ti= ming of the measure, such analysis could not = be made without making an assessment o= f its content and purpose. The = most compelling argument in favor of its self-judging characteristic is the= interpretation States have giv= en to it. While concerns for abuse of the clause are valid, bringing a comp= laint to a GATT/WTO panel is no= t the only mechanism an affected member can use to seek relief. The article= =E2=80=99s ambiguity is not nec= essarily bad for the system, and the members=E2=80=99 rest= raint in invoking it demonstrates an underlying commitment not to abuse the invocat= ion of security exceptions and an implied recognition of alternative means to safeguard its security inter= ests. The time may come sooner rather than later for a panel to finally issue a b= inding decision on the justiciability and scope of Article XXI. <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">99 <= /p>UNITED NATIONS CONFEREN= CE ON TRADE AND EMPLOYMENT: =E2=80=9CSummary Record of the Thirty<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= - = Seventh Meeting=E2=80=9D, E/CONF,2/C.6/SR.37 (3/11/1948). </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 =C3=8Ddem. = 101 UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND EMPLO= YMENT: =E2=80=9CReport of the Sixth Committee: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Organization=E2=80=9D, E/CO= NF.2/68 (1948), Article 83 =E2=81=8Ba. 32 </s= pan><img src=3D"data:image/= png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhk= iAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAACBlJREFUeJzt1qFNA1AUQNH7k9IACQrBAkhYjkm6EFt= UV+BBYmELHr85Z4IrbwEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8tTUdAEz7OVbP1XG65Ap81fqYjgCu32E6AJj2/Vi3b7Wepkv2t96r0= 3QFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMGBN= B2zioXqtbqZD2N5ndZ6OAGBvh+mATdxXL9XddAjbu2TgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAOB/+gUqrgnll22zhQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" he= ight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />IUSTIT= IA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) Vol= . 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 33 - 77 = Panor= =C3=A1mica general del Sistema sancionador tributario <spa= n class=3D"stl21">aplicable al impuesto sobre la renta en Guatemala = Dr. Carlos E. Weffe H.=EF=81=B9 = </= span>*Autor para Correspondencia. E-ma= il<a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" s= tyle=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iust= itia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">c.weffe= @ibfd.org </a>Recibido: 10 de abril de 2021 <= /span>Aceptado: 1 de mayo de 2021 </sp= an> </sp= an>______________________________= ________________________________________________ Resumen: El presente trabajo se divide en dos (2) partes. La primera = parte, sobre el sistema sancionador guatemalteco; concretamente, sobre sus fundamen= tos constitucionales. Para lo cual, se desarrollan los &= #xa0;c= onceptos de: (i) reserva legal y legalidad punitiva; (ii) proporcionalidad;= (iii) non bis in =C3=ADdem; y (iv) culpabilidad. Dentro del concepto de proporcionalida= d, se hace referencia a los subprincipios de = idoneidad, necesidad, y proporcionalid= ad stricto sensu. La segunda parte, sobre= la aplicaci=C3=B3n e influencia del sistema sancionador en el impuesto sob= re la = r= enta. Para ello, se desarrolla el r=C3=A9gimen infraccional tributario, aba= rcando, en consecuencia: (i) la validez material y temporal de la ley sancionadora= ; (ii) la definici=C3=B3n y clasificaci=C3=B3n de las infracciones; = = (iii) las presunciones y l=C3=ADmites = del derecho sancionador; (iv) el concurso y reincidencia de los il=C3=ADcit= os; y = (= v) la responsabilidad tributaria. Palabras clave: Derecho tributario; derecho sancionador tributario; im= puesto sobre la renta; Guatemala. Abstract: </span= >This paper is divided in two (2) part= s. The first part analyzes the Guatemalan sanctioning system; <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10.5pt">=EF=81=B9Senior Research Associate</= span>, International Bureau of Fiscal Documentation </s= pan>(IBFD), Pa=C3=ADses Bajos. Managing Editor, IBFD </= span>Observatory on th= e Protection of Taxpayers=E2=80=99 Rights. Lecturer= , Advanced Master=E2=80=99s in International Taxation, IBFD- <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:normal">University of Amsterdam, Pa=C3=ADses Bajos. Profesor= Asociado y ex Jefe de la C=C3=A1tedra de =C2=ABFinanzas P=C3=BAblicas=C2= =BB, Universidad Central de Venezuela. Profesor de = =C2=ABDerechos Humanos y Tributaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB, Universidad Monte=C3=A1vil= a. Representante alterno por Panam=C3=A1 al Directorio del Instituto Latin= oamericano de Derecho Tributario (ILADT). Miembro, Asociaci=C3=B3n Paname= =C3=B1a de Derecho Financiero y Tributario (APADEFT). Miembro, Academia Me= xicana de Derecho Fiscal (AMDF). Coordinador de la Comisi=C3=B3n de Derech= o Internacional Tributario, AMDF. Abogado (Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Andr= =C3=A9s Bello). Especialista en Derecho Tributario y Doctor en Derecho (Un= iversidad Central de Venezuela). Autor de cuatro libros en = solitario y m= =C3=A1s de setenta art=C3=ADculos y cap=C3=ADtulos de libros en materia tri= butaria y relacionadas. 33 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:31"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+ZJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElgQI= FyELsW6F+B99SI+NyZEbBFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAe9ymA0u8qnf1nI6w= 3lkd0wkAdrtPB5b4Vp/qMR1hvWs6AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwT35JHgTCxEbxBwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg= =3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /= >delving specifically, into its constitutional foundations= . To this end, the following concepts are </p= >explored: (i) legal reserve and punitive= legality; (ii) proportionality; (iii) non bis in idem; and (iv) <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">culpability. Within the concept of proportio= nality, reference is made to the subprinciples of suitability, <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">necessity, and proportionality <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">stricto sensu. <= /p>The second part = focuses on the application and the influence of the sanctioning system rega= rding the income tax. To this purpose, the tax infringement = regime is expanded by covering: (i) the material and = ;temporal validity of the sanct= ioning law; (ii) the definition and classification of the infringements; (i= ii) &#= xa0;the presumptions and limits= of the sanctioning law; (iv) the competition and recidivism of the offense= s; &#x= a0;and (v) the tax liability. <= /span> <= /span>Keywords: <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Tax law; tax penalties; income tax; Guatema= la. &#= xa0;1. Introducci=C3=B3n. A pesar del auge que ha tenido l= a tributaci=C3=B3n indirecta en los =C3=BAltimos tiempos,1 = el impuesto s= obre la renta (ISLR) es a=C3=BA= n uno de los elementos principales de los sistemas tributarios contempor=C3= =A1neos. En tanto su dise=C3=B1= o toma particularmente en cuenta la situaci=C3=B3n individual del contribuy= ente, el ISLR es <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">una de las her= ramientas primordiales2 para la concreci=C3=B3n p= r=C3=A1ctica de los mandatos constitucionales </span= >para el sistema tributario<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3 = de jus= ticia, equidad, tributaci=C3=B3n conforme con la capacidad contributiva e <= /span> <= /span>interdicc= i=C3=B3n de los efectos confiscatorios de los tributos, especialmente aquel= los efecto de la doble o m=C3=BAltiple imposici=C3=B3n.4 Todos estos valores est= =C3=A1n vinculados al llamado =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB,5 </sp= an> 1 <= /span>Como rasgo com=C3=BAn, es posible afirmar que las estructuras trib= utarias latinoamericanas han dado importancia creciente al = impuesto al val= or agregado (IVA). Seg=C3=BAn las estad=C3=ADsticas recopiladas por L</span= >ORA, mientras que la recaudaci=C3=B3n promedio de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;tributos di= rectos ha sido del 4% del PIB en las =C3=BAltimas d=C3=A9cadas, 3,5 % por d= ebajo de la media mundial, la recaudaci=C3=B3n <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">promedio del IVA pas=C3=B3 = de 2,9% del PIB a fines de la d=C3=A9cada de 1980 a 7,9% del PIB en 2008, e= quiparable a la media mundial. No es descabellado afirmar que esa tenden= cia se mantiene =E2=80=93incluso, se ha acrecentado=E2=80=93 en = la actualidad al punto que puede decirse, con LORA, que el IVA =E2=80=9Cha pasa= do a ocupar el papel central en la pol=C3=ADtica tributaria=E2=80= =9D. Probablemente, ello se debe =E2=80= =93seg=C3=BAn LORA=E2= =80=93 a la mayor influencia relativa de g= rupos de altos ingresos en la pol=C3=ADtica tributaria, y a las mayores </s= pan> posibilidades de manipulaci=C3=B3n que ofrecen los imp= uestos directos en comparaci=C3=B3n con el IVA, adem=C3=A1s de su menor </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">vi= sibilidad frente al ISLR. LORA, Eduardo (2008): =E2=80=9CEl futuro de los p= actos fiscales en Am=C3=A9rica Latina=E2=80=9D, Working Pa= per, No. 650 (Inter-American Development Bank, Res= earch Department, Washington, DC), pp. 5-6, 16, 26-27. Disponible en: </spa= n> http= s://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/51434/1/613978374.pdf. En el mismo sent= ido, ver ESPINOSA SEP=C3=9ALVEDA, Jorge (2014): =E2=80=9CLos sistemas de i= mpuesto a la renta de Am=C3=A9rica Latina y los convenios de dobl= e imposici=C3=B3n vigentes=E2=80=9D, Derecho PUCP: Revista de la Fa= cultad de Derecho, No. 72 (Pontificia Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica d= el Per=C3=BA) p. 204. Disponible en: https://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet= /articulo?codigo=3D4904853. 2Por su capacidad redistributiva y su alta sensibilidad a l= a capacidad contributiva, el ISLR ha sido calificado como la = 0;=C2=ABcolumna= vertebral=C2=BB de un sistema tributario equitativo. ANDINO ALARC=C3=93N, = Mauro (2009): =E2=80=9CHacia un nuevo sistema <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">de imposici=C3=B3n directa: = el Impuesto a la Renta para el Ecuador un sistema distributivo=E2= =80=9D, Fiscalidad No. 3 (Centro de Estudios </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Fi= scales, Quito) p. 108. Disponible en: http://repositorio.flacsoandes.edu.ec= /bitstream/10469/3869/1/REXTN-F03-04- Andino.pdf. </span= >3 GUATEMAL= A, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 243. </= span>4La dob= le o m=C3=BAltiple imposici=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 constitucional y legalmente pr= ohibida en Guatemala, de conformidad con los art=C3= =ADculos 243 de la Constituci=C3=B3n y 153 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. </sp= an> 5 = Bajo el concepto de =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB, la relaci=C3= =B3n entre sistema tributario y Estado social y democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">debe estructurarse a partir del uso extensivo y preferen= te del impuesto respecto de las restantes formas de ingreso estatal<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">, dado su car=C3=A1cter redistributivo por excelencia q= ue permite, con base fundamental en la medici=C3=B3n de = la real capacidad contributiva, la financiaci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;del creciente gasto p=C3=BAblico en funciones = de asignaci=C3=B3n, y por su <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt; letter-spacing:normal">elasticidad, dentro de los l=C3=ADm= ites que impone necesariamente el 34 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAA= BPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENg= DAQALFDATbwiAGUoWsqyGekVdACAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADg= E8d0YBNX9VTndITtvdU9nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAID/WKrDAgILt3qKAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" h= eight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />funda= mental6 para la concreci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica de la solidaridad<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 7 como valor esencial del Estado Social y D= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho.8 Guatema= la no es una excepci=C3=B3n. La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, =E2=80=9C<= /span>= afirmando la primac=C3=ADa de la persona humana como sujeto y fin del orden social<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= -0.05pt">=E2=80=9D,9 organiza jur=C3=ADdica y pol= =C3=ADticamente al Estado como Social de Derecho,10 = ;para proteger a la persona y s= u dignidad.11 En este contexto, la Constituci=C3=B3n, por una parte, rec= onoce = como derechos fundamenta= les12 a la propiedad privada, base de la tributaci=C3=B3n,13 </= span>y a la l= ibertad de industria, comercio = y trabajo, de la que derivan varias de las principales fuentes de producci= =C3=B3n de la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">D= erecho a la actividad estatal, para procurar por su operaci=C3=B3n la </spa= n>estabilizaci=C3=B3n de la econom=C3=ADa. WEFFE H., Ca= rlos E. (2015): =E2=80=9CTributaci=C3=B3n y Regulaci=C3=B3n. Notas introdu= ctorias al debate sobre la funci=C3=B3n del Tributo en el Estado Social y D= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho= =E2=80=9D, Tributaci=C3=B3n yRegulaci= =C3=B3n. = AVDT. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">p= p. 55-56. </= span>Disponible </span= > en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index= .php/component/k2/item/414-tributacion-y-regulacion-notas-introductorias-al= -debate- sobre-la-funcion-del-tributo-en-el-estado-social-y-democratico-de= -derecho. 6<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">De acuerdo con JOSEF I<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">SEN= SEE, el Estado delineado por la Constituci=C3=B3n es =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB, y este = constituye =E2=80=9Cel fundamento jur=C3=ADdico constituc= ional del Estado Social=E2=80=9D, al punto que este =C3=BAltimo = =E2=80=9Cdepende inevitablemente del Estado Impositivo com= o su veh=C3=ADculo=E2=80=9D. Bajo esas premisas, <= /span>ISENSEE es de la opini= =C3=B3n de que existe una =C3=ADntima vinculaci=C3=B3n entre una buena </sp= an> Adm= inistraci=C3=B3n, =C2=ABEstado Impositivo=C2=BB y =C2=ABprocura existencial= =C2=BB. ISENSEE, Josef (1977): =E2=80=9CSteuerstaat als Staatsfor= m=E2=80=9D, en ST=C3=96DTER, ROLF Y THIEME, WERNER (Edit.), Beitrage zum deutschen und europ=C3=A4ischen Verfassungs-, Verwaltungs- = und Wirtschaftsrecht (T=C3= =BCbingen) pp. 409-410. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">7En las palabra= s de C=C3=89SAR GARC=C3=8DA N= OVOA, =E2=80=9CNo todo= tributo encaja en esta percepci=C3=B3n de la solidaridad [la del= Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho]; solo aquel= los que articulan la contribuci=C3=B3n de todos al sostenimiento de los gas= tos p=C3=BAblicos. Se excluyen </spa= n> = los tributos de cariz retributivo (la tasa y, en menor medida, la= contribuci=C3=B3n especial) en los cuales el presupuesto de los mismos inc= luye una prestaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n. En el Es= tado Social no es el tributo, sino el impuesto, el instrumento de la solida= ridad. De ah=C3=AD que se hable de Estado Impositivo= =E2=80=9D. GARC=C3=8DA NOVOA, C=C3=A9sar (2009): El concepto de tributo (Lima, Tax Editor), p. 1= 34. 8 WEFFE (2015), pp. 49-63. 9 GUATEMALA, Constit= uci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, Pre=C3=A1mbulo. 10 </sp= an>La Corte de Constitucionalidad, apod=C3=ADcticamente, ha se=C3=B1alad= o la unanimidad doctrinal =E2=80=9Cal caracterizar al Esta= do guatemalteco como un Estado social de Derecho, de confor= midad con la teleolog=C3=ADa ampliamente desarrollada en su reconstituci=C3= =B3n de mil novecientos ochenta y cin= co=E2=80=9D. Sentencia de la Corte de Cons= titucionalidad de Guatemala de 13 de julio de 2005 (Procurador de los Derec= hos Humanos vs. Instituto Guatemalteco de los Segur= os Sociales, Expediente 2765-2004), p. 4. Consultado el 17 de diciembre </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">de= 2018. Disponbile en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/806724.2765-2004.pdf= . = De ello se sigue, como corolario, que la interpretaci=C3=B3n constitucio= nal exige la ponderaci=C3=B3n entre la libertad individual =E2=80=9C= con la igualdad, la solidaridad, el bienestar com= =C3=BAn=E2=80=9D. En consecuencia, =E2=80=9Cla i= nterpretaci=C3=B3n valorativa de la Constituci=C3=B3n en orden a los derech= os humanos contenidos en ella debe dar por presupuestos que:= a) esos derechos son, ontol=C3=B3gicamente, limitados, porque son d= erechos =E2=80=98del hombre en = sociedad=E2=80=99= ; y b) esos derechos son relativos y, por ende, admiten limitaciones razona= bles al tenor de lo que en ese punto habilita la Constituc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, como lo son las tributarias, por ejemplo. Sen= tencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 15 de enero de 200= 8 = (Marie Claire Palacios Boeufgras, Debora Mar=C3=ADa Ponce Ogaldez e In= =C3=A9s Mar=C3=ADa Cruz Garc=C3=ADa, en acci=C3=B3n de </= span>inconstitucionali= dad contra varios art=C3=ADculos de la Ley de la Direcci=C3=B3n General de = Inteligencia Civil y de la Ley Contra la Delincuencia Organizada, Expedien= te 2837-2006), p. 10. Consultado el 17 de diciembre de 2018. Disponbile en:= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/812942.2837-2006.pdf. </= span>11 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADc= ulos 1 y 4. 12 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3= =B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculos 39 y 43. 13 </= span>La propiedad, dice LEITE <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >DE CAMPOS, es= corolario de la libertad: es libre quien es aut=C3=B3nomo =E2=80=93PLAT=C3= =93N=E2=80=93 y dispone de <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">los medios materiales y ese= nciales de una vida digna =E2=80=93= SANTO T= OM=C3=81S DE AQUINO</sp= an>. Cada persona debe tener posibilidades </span= > de desarrollar libremente su personalidad y disponer de s= us bienes, lo que limita directamente al sistema tributario en el <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > estado d= emocr=C3=A1tico de Derecho: la tributaci=C3=B3n debe ser tal que permita a = las personas disfrutar efectivamente de su propiedad, y en consecuencia de= su libertad. LEITE DE CAMPOS, Diogo (2006): O sistema tri= but=C3=A1rio no Estado dos Cidada=C3=B5s = (Coimbra, Gr=C3=A1fica d= e Coimbra), pp. 56 y 110. Como con acierto se=C3=B1ala ANDRADE </= span>RODR=C3=8DGUEZ, =E2=80=9Cla existencia de razones que </s= pan> justifiquen la tributaci=C3=B3n no implica que =C3=A9sta pueda = ser creada de manera indiscriminada. Por lo contrario, esta debe ser conceb= ida sobre una serie de l=C3=ADmites que permitan la protecci= =C3=B3n del derecho de propiedad, el derecho a una subsistencia digna y otr= os Derechos Humanos Fundamentales, los cuales deben ser gara= ntizados en todo Estado que se precie de ser considerado democr=C3=A1tico. = [=E2=80=A6] La tributaci= =C3=B3n comienza en aquel lugar que excede la subsistencia h= umana digna m=C3=ADnima necesaria y termina en aquel lugar en donde =C3=A9s= ta destruye la propiedad=E2=80=9D. ANDRADE RODR=C3=8DGUEZ, Betty= (2018): Inmunidad tributaria de los derechos humanos. Cap= acidad contributiva y m=C3=ADnimo vital = (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, = Thomson Reuters), pp. 99, 126. 35 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPu= d2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENgDAQ= ALHDAkZwhSyMYG4yfktaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADYxjUdO= MRTfdU9HeF4f/VOJwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAANjTAqLMAgKlf3uWAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" heig= ht=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />renta gravable con el ISLR; y p= or la otra, asume la realizaci=C3=B3n de una serie de actividades <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>prestacionales14 de garant=C3=ADa de = la llamada =C2=ABprocura existencial=C2=BB,15 de naturaleza subsidiari= a y &#= xa0;comp= lementaria de la iniciativa particular,16 cuyo = financiamiento depende fundamentalmente del <= /p>ingreso tributario.17 </span= > Sin embargo, estos obj= etivos, tan claros en el papel, no han sido alcanzados en la pr=C3=A1ctica = en los pa=C3=ADses latinoameric= anos: a pesar de constituir uno de los pilares fundamentales de los sistema= s tributarios de <= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">la regi=C3=B3n, el ISLR no tiene la importancia que su capacidad r= edistributiva permitir=C3=ADa prever.18 Entre las causas19 destaca la </span= >evasi= =C3=B3n fiscal, que puede calificarse como alarmante.</spa= n>20 Entre 2005 y 2009, la evasi=C3=B3n general del ISLR en Guatemala promedi=C3=B3 62%,21 <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">y para 2012 se estim=C3=B3 que el incumplimiento con el <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> r=C3=A9gimen de acti= vidades lucrativas del ISLR equivale al 40,3% de su potencial recaudatorio = total.22 La </p= >14 As=C3=AD lo ha reconocido la Corte de Constitucionalidad, al = indicar pac=C3=ADficamente que la Constituci=C3=B3n =E2=80=9C</sp= an>consagra el principio del = Estado social pre= stador de servicios=E2=80=9D. Sentencia <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 24 de julio de 2000 (Mice= la Chut=C3=A1n Gramajo de D=C3=ADaz y Julio C=C3=A9= sar Vargas Ju=C3=A1rez, en representaci=C3=B3n de sus hijos menores de edad= Julio Antonio Medina Chut=C3=A1n y Andr=C3=A9s V= argas M=C3=A1rquez, respectivamente, vs. Centros Educativos Lehnsen, Socied= ad An=C3=B3nima, Expediente 787-2000), p. 6. Consultado el 17 de diciembre= de 2018. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/815783.787-2000.= pdf. Ello, al decir de la Corte, =E2=80=9Cimplica la cons= tante intervenci=C3=B3n estatal para satisfacer demandas de los particulare= s=E2=80=9D. Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guate= mala de 27 de agosto de 2009, (Cr=C3=A9dito Hipotecario Nacional de Guatema= la y Jos=C3=A9 Fidencio Garc=C3=ADa Beltet=C3=B3n vs. Procurador de los De= rechos Humanos, Expediente 4061-2008), p. 5. Consultado el 18 de diciembre = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de 2018. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/810054.4061-2008.= pdf. 15 Seg=C3= =BAn ERNST FORSTHOFF, la =C2=ABprocura existencial=C2=BB es el co= njunto de medidas estatales que permiten subsidiariamente la = 0;satisfacci=C3= =B3n de aquellas necesidades humanas, b=C3=A1sicas para la existencia libre= y digna del ciudadano, a las que este no puede = atender por s=C3=AD mism= o. De este modo, el concepto se identifica con la diferencia entre el =C2= =ABespacio vital dominado=C2=BB, el =C3=A1mbito = de las necesidades human= as a las que el individuo est=C3=A1 en capacidad de atender por s=C3=AD mis= mo, sin necesidad de intervenci=C3=B3n externa; y el =C2=ABespacio vital= efectivo=C2=BB, el espectro de bienes y servicios que son necesarios para = que el individuo realice su existencia en condicion= es que permitan el reconocimiento de su dignidad, por una parte, y el goce = efectivo de su libertad, = por la otra. FORSTHOFF, = Ernst (1986): =E2=80=9CProblemas Constitucionales del Estado Social=E2=80= =9D, en ABENDROTH, Wolfgang; FORSTHOFF, Ernst y DOEHRING, Karl, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">El Estado Social (Madrid, Colecci=C3=B3n Estudios Constitu= cionales. Centro de Estudios Constitucionales), pp. 46-49. = ;16 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3= =ADculo 118. 17 En efe= cto, en lo atinente a la actividad financiera p=C3=BAblica, el car=C3=A1cte= r social y de derecho del Estado guatemalteco no </p= >supone necesariamente la= gratuidad de los servicios p=C3=BAblicos. La solidaridad, tambi=C3=A9n, se= expresa fiscalmente a trav=C3=A9s del principio de d= istribuci=C3=B3n causal del gasto: la traslaci=C3=B3n de los cost= os p=C3=BAblicos asociados con la realizaci=C3=B3n de ciertas conductas </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">co= ncretas a sus realizadores, dada la funci=C3=B3n de asignaci=C3=B3n de recu= rsos caracter=C3=ADstica del Estado Impositivo. Naturalmente, &#x= a0;para medir a= decuadamente la capacidad contributiva, estos gastos integrar=C3=A1n negati= vamente =E2=80=93como deduccion= es=E2=80=93 la base de c=C3=A1lculo del ISLR. Sentenc= ia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 13 de diciembre de 200= 7, (Procurador de los Derechos Humanos vs. Concejo Municipal de Guatemala,= Expediente 39-2004), p. 12. Consultado el 17 de </p= >diciembre de 2018. Dispo= nible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/813625.39-2004.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;18 CEPAL (2016): Panorama Fiscal d= e Am=C3=A9rica Latina y el Caribe 2016: las finanzas p=C3=BAblicas ante el = desaf=C3=ADo de conciliar austeridad con = crecimiento </spa= n> = eigualdad, </span= > (Santiago, Naciones Unidas), p. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">71. = Disponible &#x= a0;en: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> https:/= /repositorio.cepal.org/bitstream/handle/11362/39939/22/S1600111_es.pdf. </s= pan> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">19 = A saber: (i) tasas mar= ginales m=C3=A1ximas reducidas del ISLR personal; (ii) la reducci=C3=B3n de= la base imponible debido a la existencia de amplios beneficios tributario= s y tratamientos diferenciales; (iii) alta concentraci=C3=B3n de la renta; = (iv) el peso relativo de la informalidad y de los peque=C3=B1os contribuye= ntes en el universo recaudatorio; (v) la baja moral tributaria, costos </sp= an> de = cumplimiento y problemas de administraci=C3=B3n tributaria; y (vi) la eleva= da evasi=C3=B3n fiscal. CEPAL (2016), p. 72; LORA </= p>(2008), p. 6; y G=C3=93M= EZ SABA=C3=8DNI, Juan Carlos (2013): Consideraciones metod= ol=C3=B3gicas para medir la evasi=C3=B3n del impuesto sobre la <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt"> renta, p. 3. Disponible en: https://www.cepal.org/sites/defaul= t/files/courses/files/presentacion_gomez_sabaini.pdf. </spa= n>20 CEPAL (2016), pp. 71-72. 21 </s= pan>CEPAL (2016), p. 77; y CIAT: Estimaci=C3=B3n del in= cumplimiento tributario en Am=C3=A9rica Latina 2000-2010, p. 20. Disponible en: &= #xa0;https://= www.cepal.org/ofilac/noticias/paginas/9/49309/Verdi.pdf. </= span>22 ICEFI (2015): Diagn=C3=B3stico y prop= uesta alternativa de hoja de ruta para el rescate y reconstrucci=C3=B3n de = la SAT (Guatemala, ICEFI), p. 9. Disponible </= span>en: &#x= a0;36 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB+ZJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElgQIFyELsW6F+B99SI+NyZEbBFAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= 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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAADwT35JHgTCxEbxBwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" a= lt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />tendencia podr=C3=AD= a justificar la ca=C3=ADda en la recaudaci=C3=B3n real para octubre de 2015= de -6,4%, equivalente a 0,4% del PIB, pen=C3=BAltima en la regi=C3=B3n despu=C3=A9= s de Per=C3=BA y a pesar de la reforma tributaria que ampli=C3=B3 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>la base imponible, al someter al impuest= o los dividendos, distribuci=C3=B3n de utilidades y ganancias de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >capital.23 </s= pan>Adem=C3=A1s de otras posibles razo= nes, la alta evasi=C3=B3n tributaria en el ISLR es muestra de la <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">ambivalen= cia =C3=A9tica </= span>que, en = los hechos, acompa=C3=B1a a la implementaci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica del sistem= a tributario.24 Al tiempo que p=C3=BAblicamente se repudia la evasi=C3=B3n fisca= l, buena parte de los contribuyentes evade si encuentra &= #xa0;oportunidad de hacerlo,<= /span>25 sin que por ello el evasor deje de exigir del Estado el cumplimiento d= e la &= #xa0;actividad prestacional q= ue justifica al poder en el Estado Social de Derecho,26 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">como si aquel hu= biese = pagado todo el tributo a= l que legalmente estaba obligado.27 En este sentido, se ha identificado = una &#= xa0;rela= ci=C3=B3n directamente proporcional entre progresividad del sistema tributa= rio y moral tributaria, con significativos efectos marginale= s.28 Para remediar una situaci=C3=B3n tal, m=C3=A1s all=C3= =A1 de la viabilidad de un pacto fiscal,29 </sp= an>la posibilidad del incremento </= p>de la recaudaci=C3=B3n tributaria </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>y en consecuencia, de la capacidad del Estado para responder = a las ne= cesidades financieras del Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho</span= >=E2=80=93 </= span>pasa por= un mayor cumplimiento de la ley tributaria, entendida como expresi=C3=B3n de la vo= luntad general orientada, entre otros fines, a los objetivo= s redistributivos y de reducci=C3=B3n de las desigualdades que es caracter= =C3=ADstico del Estado Impositivo, en los t=C3=A9rminos antes expuestos. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>Bajo estas premis= as, el Derecho sancionador, sector del ordenamiento que orienta el ejercici= o de la m=C3=A1xima coacci=C3=B3n estatal a la protecci=C3= =B3n de los valores fundamentales de la sociedad, encuentra justificaci=C3=B3n </sp= an>=E2=80=93<= /span>en el c= ontexto del ISLR y, en general, de todo el sistema tributario=E2=80=93 <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">en la necesaria https://icefi.org/sites/default/files/diagno= stico_y_propuesta_de_hoja_de_ruta_para_el_rescate_y_reconstruccion_de_l </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">a_= sat_gt_05-2015.pdf. 23 CEPAL (2016), pp= . 37, 52. 24 OCAMPO P= ONCE, Manuel (2018): =E2=80=9C=C3=89tica y Moral Tributaria: una recuperaci= =C3=B3n del pensamiento cl=C3=A1sico y cristiano = 0;desde la pers= pectiva de Santo Tom=C3=A1s de Aquino=E2=80=9D, en G=C3=93MEZ COTERO, Jos= =C3=A9 de Jes=C3=BAs y BEJAR, Luis Jos=C3=A9 (Edit.), =C3= =89tica y Moral Tributaria <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Thomson Reuters), p. 25; y GIARRIZZO, Victoria y SI= VORI, Juan Sebasti=C3=A1n (2010): =E2=80=9CLa inconsistencia de la moral t= ributaria: El caso de los moralistas evasores=E2=80=9D, P= ecvnia: Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias </= p>Econ=C3=B3micas y= Empresariales No. 10 (Universidad de Le=C3=B3n), p. 98. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 25 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Como dice AFTALI=C3=93N, mucha gente que se horrorizar=C3=AD= a al proponerle la comisi=C3=B3n de un delito com=C3=BAn, encuentra = intere= sante la informaci=C3=B3n respecto de esquemas fiscales evasivos. Sobre est= a base es posible identificar, como lo han hecho GIARRIZZO y SIVORI = para el caso argentino, un patr=C3=B3n de comportamiento curioso: si bie= n un nivel alto de cumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias es indicio= de una moral tributaria alta, no necesariamente la conciencia moral </span= > del d= eber de tributar supone un mayor =C3=ADndice de cumplimiento del tributo. A= FTALI=C3=93N, Enrique R. (1959): Derecho Penal <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt"> Econ=C3=B3mico, (Buenos Aires, Editorial Depalma), p. 32, y G= IARRIZZO y SIVORI (2010), pp. 98-99. 26 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >A este respecto, resulta curioso constatar que, contra la creencia general= izada, los gobiernos latinoamericanos dedican al </p= >gasto en educaci=C3=B3n = y salud 6,2% m=C3=A1s recursos fiscales que otras regiones del mundo en des= arrollo. LORA (2008), p. 8. 27 ANZOLA P=C3=89REZ, Oswaldo (1999): =E2=80=9CLa ley tributaria: su = interpretaci=C3=B3n y los medios legales e ilegales para evitar= o reducir sus efectos=E2=80=9D, en Libro Homenaje a Jos= =C3=A9 Andr=C3=A9s Octavio, (Caracas, Ediciones de la Asociaci=C3= =B3n Venezolana de Derecho Tributario),p. 6. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">28= Vid. CASTA=C3=91EDA R= ODR=C3=8DGUEZ, V=C3=ADctor Mauricio (2017): =E2=80=9CLa equidad= del sistema tributario y su relaci=C3=B3n con la moral <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > tributar= ia. Un estudio para Am=C3=A9rica Latina=E2=80=9D, Investig= aci=C3=B3n econ=C3=B3mica, Vol. 76, No. 299 (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xic= o, UNAM), p. 125. 29 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">Q= ue en el caso de Guatemala, se dice, ha enfrentado dificultades en la pr=C3= =A1ctica por las profundas desigualdades sociales, am=C3=A9n de otras razo= nes. LORA (2008), pp. 23-24. Ver tambi=C3=A9n ALARC=C3=93N DUQUE, Adolfo Ja= cobo (2012): =E2=80=9CAlgunas consideraciones sobre pol=C3=ADtica fiscal e= n Guatemala=E2=80=9D, Revista Jur=C3=ADdica, No.= 16 (Ciudad de Guatemala, Instituto de Investigaciones <= /span>Jur=C3=ADdicas. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Universidad Rafael Land=C3= =ADvar), p. = 0;95. Disponible </p= >en: </= span>https://www.url.e= du.gt/publicacionesurl/FileCS.ashx?Id=3D40761. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">37 </= span> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAA= nAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJ= REFUeJzt1qERwlAUAMFjQOFogW7Sv0Klh1SAoABExJ+X2a3g5BUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/9xWBwzxrN7VfXUI4x3VvjoCgNkeqwO= GeFVbv5GDMz4ZOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgAv6= AkMIBCLO+IwxAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />protecci=C3=B3n del orden econ=C3=B3mico: la sanci=C3=B3= n es, as=C3=AD, reacci=C3=B3n frente a la violaci=C3=B3n de la norma tribut= aria, = que pone de manifiesto l= a preeminencia del valor protegido por la regla fiscal =E2=80=93el orden econ=C3=B3mi= co, y = l= a solidaridad social instrumentalizada en la distribuci=C3=B3n equitativa d= e las cargas p=C3=BAblicas de acuerdo con la ley=E2=80=93, sirve a su protecci=C3=B3n y exteri= oriza = =E2=80=93por ello=E2=80=93 el mandato estatal de obediencia a la norma. Esta respuesta, la pena, ti= ene siempre lugar a costa del responsable por haber infringido la norma, en= este ca= so, tributaria.30 Las consideraciones previas justifican el= an=C3=A1lisis jur=C3=ADdico del sistema represivo fiscal= de Guatemala, a los efectos de determinar su idoneidad raci= onal para asegurar la protecci=C3=B3n de los valores constitucionales </spa= n> = asociados al = cumplimiento del ISLR en el sistema tributario guatemalteco, como concreci= =C3=B3n =E2=80=93ya se ha <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">dicho<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">de los valores= redistributivos y de justicia encarnados en la conformaci=C3=B3n del Estad= o como Social y Democr=C3=A1tic= o de Derecho. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Para ello, dividi= remos nuestra exposici=C3=B3n sucesiva en dos partes. En la primera secci= =C3=B3n, describiremos las regl= as y principios constitucionales b=C3=A1sicos que fundamentan el ejercicio = del poder sancionador estatal <= /span>=E2=80= =93ius puniendi=E2=80=93 en Guatemala, y su interacci=C3=B3n con los principios fundam= entales del orden = tributario. F= inalmente, en la segunda parte analizaremos la arquitectura legal del siste= ma represivo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">fiscal en Guatemal= a, tanto infraccional31 como delictual,32 y de= scribiremos su interacci=C3=B3n con el ISLR, = de manera de of= recer algunas alternativas jur=C3=ADdicas de soluci=C3=B3n a estos problema= s. = 2. Bases constitucionales del sistema tributario = sancionador guatemalteco Solo las acciones dirigidas racionalmente por la conj= unci=C3=B3n de voluntad y raz=C3=B3n pueden calificarse como humanas.33 </sp= an>De esta manera la libertad, la posibilidad de ejercer la volun= tad en el dise=C3=B1o y ejecuci=C3=B3n = del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB</s= pan>34, se configura como contenido axiol=C3=B3gico esencial de todo orden </sp= an> </sp= an>30 Vid. ROXIN, Claus (1997): Derecho Penal. Parte general. Tomo I. Fundamento= s. La estructura de la teor=C3=ADa del delito, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 81; y JAKOBS, = G=C3=BCnther (1995): Derecho Penal.= Parte General. Fundamentos y Teor=C3=ADa de la Imputaci=C3=B3n<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:0.05pt">, <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">(Madrid, Editorial Marcial P= ons), p. 8. 31 Regulado principalmente = en el T=C3=ADtulo III del Decreto Nro. 6-91 del Congreso de la Rep=C3=BAbli= ca de Guatemala, contentivo del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. </= span>32 Regulado en el Cap=C3=ADtulo IV del T=C3=ADtulo X del = Decreto Nro. 17-73 del Congreso de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Guatemala, contenti= vo del C=C3=B3digo Penal. 33 AQUINO, = (Santo) Tom=C3=A1s de (2001): Summa Teol=C3=B3gica = (Madrid, Biblioteca de Autores Cristianos), pp. 755-756. Disponible </sp= an> en:= https://www.dominicos.org/media/uploads/recursos/libros/suma/1.pdf; </span= > y</sp= an>KANT, Immanuel (200= 7): Fundamentaci=C3=B3n de la Metaf=C3=ADsica de las Costumbres</sp= an>, (San Juan de Puerto Rico, Edici=C3=B3n de Pe= dro M. Rosario Barbosa), pp. 60- </s= pan>61. Disponible en:= https://pmrb.net/books/kantfund/fund_metaf_costumbres_vD.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;34 RAWLS, John (1995): <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">Teor=C3=ADa de la Justicia, (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Fondo= de Cultura Econ=C3=B3mica), pp. 370-377; HEGEL, </p= >Georg W. F. (2005): </sp= an>Enciclopedia de las Ciencias Filos=C3=B3ficas. =C2= =A7 53. (Madrid, Alianza Editorial), p. 157; y KANT, Inmanuel &#x= a0;(1873): </sp= an>Principios Metaf=C3=ADsicos del Derecho, (Madrid, Li= brer=C3=ADa de Victorino Su=C3=A1rez), p. 42. Disponible en: = 0;http://fama2.= us.es/fde/ocr/2006/principiosMetafisicosKant.pdf. </= p>38= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+dJREFUeJzt1sEJwgAQAMEV4iNCOtH+G/GdDuzBMo6DmQr2uQUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAMOMxHbDEVX2q53QI6/2q73QEALsd0wFLvKp3dU6HsN6dgQMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAYNQf= AqMD92FLjrsAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />normativo,35 y como fundamento de la responsabilidad.= 36 En otras palabras, el Derecho es el reino de la libertad realizada a trav=C3= =A9s de la voluntad.37 Sin embargo, la voluntad <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:0.= 05pt">=E2=80=93aunque libre=E2=80=93 no es absoluta. Ella no siempre se da a s=C3=AD misma = su ley, sino <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que a esta le vien= en impuestos determinados l=C3=ADmites heter=C3=B3nomamente,38 </s= pan>en funci=C3=B3n de la libertad en </= span> s=C3=AD, en su vinculaci=C3=B3n con la voluntad, y de= la relaci=C3=B3n del individuo con los dem=C3=A1s. Estos se resumen, </spa= n> </spa= n>a grandes ras= gos, en dos prohibiciones de actuaci=C3=B3n frente a terceros: (i) ejercer = coerci=C3=B3n o restricciones a la libertad, que no est=C3=A9n legitimadas por la = autodeterminaci=C3=B3n de la voluntad ajena, en los casos en los que la dignidad humana39 </span= >lo permite; = y (ii) causar da=C3=B1o.40 Bajo estas premisas, la facultad= de obrar seg=C3=BAn la pulsi=C3=B3n41 o el est=C3=ADmulo =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">y el placer a ellos asociado=E2=80=93 que despierta una dete= rminada representaci=C3=B3n ps=C3=ADquica de un objeto, de manera que deter= mine al sujeto a la acci=C3=B3n= ,42 encuentra l=C3=ADmites racionales en la capac= idad de la conducta, as=C3=AD determinada, de </span= >producir interferencias con el =C3=A1= mbito de libertad de los dem=C3=A1s,43 y, en cons= ecuencia, en la necesidad de su represi=C3=B3n, tanto f=C3=ADsica como psicol=C3=B3= gica.44 En la medida en la que estas barreras al dise=C3=B1o y <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>concreci=C3=B3n d= el =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB deban definirse heter=C3=B3nomamente,<= /span>45 la dignidad humana demanda= el consentimiento del individuo cuya libertad resulta, a= s=C3=AD, coactivamente restringida. Esta idea </span= >contribuye, de= sde luego, a la idea de prevenci=C3=B3n general positiva: estabilizar la fi= delidad al Derecho de 35 HART, H= erbert L. A. (1990): =E2=80=9C=C2=BFExisten los derechos naturales?=E2=80= =9D, Estudios P=C3=BAblicos No. 37, (Santiago, Centro de Estudios &= #xa0;P=C3=BAb= licos de </s= pan>Chile), <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= p. 46. = Disponible &#x= a0;en: <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> https:/= /www.cepchile.cl/cep/site/artic/20160303/asocfile/20160303183129/rev37_hart= .pdf. 36 Sea como la posibilidad jur=C3= =ADdica relativa de realizar una determinada conducta o abstenerse de ella,= o servir de garante de la posici=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADd= ica propia o de la de un tercero, dentro de una gama m=C3=A1s o menos ampli= a de posibilidades (responsabilidad-rol); o sea com= o la conciencia y libertad de los actos individuales que permiten ejercer s= u capacidad de elegir, </= p>respecto de su actuar en= cualquier situaci=C3=B3n, en los t=C3=A9rminos descritos previamente (resp= onsabilidad-capacidad); o sea como el v=C3=ADnculo entre la acci=C3=B3n cu= ya consecuencia es jur=C3=ADdicamente regulada y la persona que debe sufrir= , por tal circunstancia, una modificaci=C3=B3n de su stat= us jur=C3=ADdico (responsabilidad-carga). HART, Herbert L. A. (20= 08): Punishment and Responsibility. Essays = in the Philosophy of Law (Oxford, Oxford University Press), pp. 2= 11-215; y WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2014): =E2=80=9CLa responsabilidad tribut= aria=E2=80=9D, en Memorias de las XXVII Jornadas Latinoame= ricanas de Derecho Tributario, Tomo I, (Lima, </= span>ILADT-IPDT), pp. = 567-570. 37 Vid. HEGEL, Georg W. F. (19= 68): Filosof=C3=ADa del Derecho. =C2=A7 4, (Buen= os Aires, Editorial Claridad), p. 47; KANT (2007), p. </spa= n>53; y WEFFE H., Carl= os E. (2007): =E2=80=9CLa tributaci=C3=B3n como expresi=C3=B3n de la eticid= ad en el pensamiento de G. W. F. Hegel=E2=80=9D, </p= >Revista <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt">de &#x= a0;Derec= ho Tributario, No. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">114, = (Caracas, AVDT), p. </span= > 95. Disponible en: https://www.academia.edu/37294122= /La_Tributaci%C3%B3n_como_expresi%C3%B3n_de_la_Eticidad_en_el_pensa = miento= _de_G._W._F._Hegel. 38 KANT (2007), p. = 53. 39 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52; y AN= DRADE RODR=C3=8DGUEZ (2018), p. 42. 40 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= HART (1990), p. 46. 41 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >FREUD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CLas pulsiones y sus destinos=E2=80=9D, en = Obras Completas, Vol. 14, (Buenos Aires, Amorror= tu editores), p. 115. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/1= 4%20-%20Tomo%20XIV.pdf. 42 Vid. KANT (1= 873), pp. 43, 45-46. 43 De all=C3=AD el= postulado contractualista seg=C3=BAn el cual la uni=C3=B3n de las voluntad= es y fuerzas individuales act=C3=BAa como garant=C3=ADa </= span>intercambiable de= la libertad de todos, y fundamenta a la sociedad civil. Vid. FEUERBACH, Pa= ul Anselm (Ritter) von (1826): Lehrbuch des gemeinen in = Deutschland g=C3=BCltigen peinlichen Rechts. =C2=A7 8 (Giessen. V= erlag von Georg Friedrich Heyer), p. 16. Disponible en: https://bit.ly/2FX= j1k3. 44 FEUERBACH (1826), p. 18; y FRE= UD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CLa represi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en Obras Completas, Vol. 14, (Buenos Aires, </span= >Amorrortu editores), = pp. 141-142. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/14%20-%20To= mo%20XIV.pdf. 45 Como m=C3=ADnimo, por = definirse negativamente sobre la base de la libertad ajena. = ;39 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoA= AAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQ= BD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgAAMwLDhAB+owwuCkIYLnietghYAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMBPjunAElf1VOd0hPXe6p5OAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFt9ggQCAqcKOyUAAAAASUV= ORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolu= te" />= la poblaci=C3=B3n, y predisponer a la ciudadan=C3=ADa a comportarse seg=C3= =BAn las normas consentidas, para formar la conciencia de la que depende, una vez m= =C3=A1s, la eficacia del Derecho sancionador.46 </s= pan>De ello sur= gen, en nuestra materia, los llamados axiomas del garantismo penal<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, garant=C3=AD= as jur=C3=ADdicas para la afirm= aci=C3=B3n de la responsabilidad sancionadora y de la aplicaci=C3=B3n de la= pena y, en consecuencia, condi= ciones necesarias para sancionar: en su ausencia est=C3=A1 prohibido el cas= tigo.47 Estos son principios, proposiciones fundamentales =E2=80= =93y p= or ello, especialmente importantes=E2=80=93 que definen, sistematizan y condicionan todo un sistema de Derecho, en nue= stro caso, el ordenamiento sancionador.48 = Los principios = sirven a estos prop=C3=B3sitos a trav=C3=A9s de una serie de funciones. Ell= os son, primero, par=C3=A1metros de correcci=C3=B3n del ordenamiento, que le permit= en controlar sus propios excesos o configuraciones injustas; segundo, f=C3=B3rmulas de soluci=C3=B3n de la= s lagunas normativas, fuera del alcance del cuestionado axioma de la plenitud herm= en=C3=A9utica del Derecho, entendido =C3=BAnicamente como un sistema =C2=ABcerrado=C2=BB de reglas; y tercero, mecanismos de justificac= i=C3=B3n de los enunciados normativos que </p= >integran, como reglas, el sistema.</span= >49 En otras palabras, los principios son mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n, que demandan que un determinado valor50 se realice =C2=ABen la m= ayor medida posible, de acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1cticas y jur=C3=ADdica= s existentes=C2=BB.51 2.1. Reserva legal y legalidad punitiva. </= p>De entre estos pr= incipios, la reserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora ocupan lugar primord= ial, como es natural en toda forma de Derecho p=C3=BAblico.52 <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Con ellos, la libertad y la dignidad humanas obtienen una doble protecci=C3=B3= n.53 Primero, en tanto un sistema de represi=C3=B3n heter=C3=B3nomamente= ejercible frente = al acto de terceros que da=C3=B1a, o que constri=C3=B1e la libert= ad propia, permite presuponer que los individuos </s= pan>evitar=C3= =A1n la pulsi=C3=B3n de realizar esas conductas54 para evitar el = disgus= to55 propio de la pena, ampliando as=C3=AD 46 ROXIN = (1997), p. 146. 47 FERRAJOLI, Luigi (20= 01): Derecho y Raz=C3=B3n<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= . Teor=C3=ADa del garantismo penal, (Madrid, Edi= torial Trotta), pp. 92-93. 48 ATIENZA,= Manuel y RUIZ MANERO, Juan (1991): =E2=80=9CSobre principios y reglas=E2= =80=9D, en Doxa, cuadernos de Filos= of=C3=ADa del Derecho, No. 10, pp. 104-105. Disponible en: http://hdl.handle.net/10045/10763= . = 49 WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2018): </span= >Culpabilidad, infracciones tributarias y delitos fiscales= , (Ciudad de M=C3=A9xico, Thomson Reuters), p. </= p>118. </= span>50 Los valores son inicio y fin del Dere= cho, toda vez que de ellos deriva, primero, el ideal </spa= n>del Derecho, que como tal condiciona la elecci=C3=B3n de medios para = su realizaci=C3=B3n; y segundo, el criterio de valoraci=C3=B3n de las soluc= iones de un determinado sistema jur=C3=ADdico, como ya se ha dicho en el t= exto principal. Dicho de otro modo, los principios son la <= /span>expresi=C3=B3n de=C3=B3ntica= =E2=80=93bajo la forma performa= tiva de un mandato=E2=80=93 de los valores. Vid. WEFFE = (2018), pp. 128-129. 51 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">ALEXY, Robert (2011): =E2=80=9CLos derechos fundamentales y el principio = de proporcionalidad=E2=80=9D, Revista Espa=C3=B1ola de Der= echo Constitucional, No. 91 (Madrid, Centro de Est= udios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales), pp. 11-29. Disponible en: = https:= //recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/REDCons/article/view/40010/22639. = 0;52 MOLES CAUBET, Antonio (1991): =E2= =80=9CLecciones de Derecho Administrativo, parte general=E2=80=9D, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Revista de la Facultad de Ciencias Jur=C3=ADdicas y= Pol=C3=ADticas, No. 82 (Caracas, Universidad Central de Venezuel= a), p. 51. Disponible en: http://www.ulpiano.org.ve/revistas/bases/artic/t= exto/RDUCV/82/rucv_1991_82_47-115.pdf. 53 </spa= n>ROXIN (1997), p. 137; y FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 363. </= span>54 Dice FREUD: =E2=80=9C=E2=80=A6la cultura debe ser protegida contra los individuos, y sus </s= pan>normas, instituciones y mandamientos cumplen esa tarea; no s= =C3=B3lo persiguen el fin de establecer cierta distribuci=C3= =B3n de los bienes, sino el de conservarlos=E2=80=9D. FREUD, Sigm= und (1992): =E2=80=9CEl porvenir de una ilusi=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en = Obras Completas, Vol. 13 (Buenos Aires, Amorrortu edito= res), p. 6. Disponible en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/21%20-%20To= mo%20XXI.pdf. 55 KANT = (1873), pp. 42-43; FREUD, Sigmund (1992): =E2=80=9CT=C3=B3tem y T= ab=C3=BA=E2=80=9D, en Obras Complet= as, Vol. 13 (Buenos Aires, Amorrortu editores), p. 41. Disponibl= e en: http://www.bibliopsi.org/docs/freud/13%20-%20Tomo%20XIII.pdf <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 40 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cYA= AAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position= :absolute" />el =C3=A1mbito de protecci=C3=B3n individual de la libertad,<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >56 protegiendo los valores fundamentales de la <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">sociedad57 y confiriendo, por esa v=C3=ADa, cierto grado de segurid= ad =E2= =80=93= jur=C3=ADdica, en tanto proveniente del Derecho=E2=80=9358 a= los individuos respecto de la posible amenaza exterior a dichos valores. E= s posible afirmar que la reserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora ofrecen protecci= =C3=B3n con el Derecho sancionador. Adem=C3=A1s, de esta manera el Derecho sancionado= r protege en la medida en la que permite conservar =E2=80=93 reafirmar, incluso=E2=80=93 el discern= imiento de lo que es correcto y lo que no lo es, lo que es leg=C3=ADtimo, y= lo que es injusto.59 En segundo lugar, la r= eserva legal y la legalidad sancionadora protegen al individuo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">del = Derecho sancionador, en la medida en la que la r= epresi=C3=B3n heter=C3=B3noma solo puede darse en condiciones respetuosas de la libertad y la dignidad del transgresor, esto es, solo a= trav=C3=A9s de la habilitaci=C3=B3n previa, = cierta, estricta y escrita contenida e= n la ley, expresi=C3=B3n de la voluntad general empe=C3=B1ada en la tutela = de &#x= a0;los derechos fundamentales: = fuera de este limitado =C3=A1mbito est=C3=A1 prohibido castigar.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">60= Es po= r ello que se <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">ha dicho, con acierto, que el Derecho sancionador estructurado sobre = la base de estos principios constituye la Charta Magna </sp= an>del delinc= uente, garant=C3=ADa de libertad para todos.61 </s= pan>As=C3=AD, e= s posible afirmar apod=C3=ADcticamente que, en la formulaci=C3=B3n principi= sta del Estado democr=C3=A1tico de derecho, no puede haber ni pena sin il=C3=ADcito= =E2= =80=93nulla p=C5=93na sine crimine=E2=80=93 ni il=C3=ADcito sin ley =E2=80=93nullum crimen sine <= /span>= lege.62 De acuerdo con la estructura l=C3=B3gica del apotegma, el poder = punitivo requiere de la ley como condici=C3=B3n necesaria para su ejercicio: la pen= a existir=C3=A1 solo como consecuencia del il=C3=ADcito, y ser=C3=A1 una </= span> medida ret= ributiva, post delictum,<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">6= 3 que = solo castiga por lo que se ha hecho y no por lo que se es, o por <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >lo que se aparenta ser, o por cualquier = otra causa.64 En otras palabras, para la existenc= ia de un il=C3=ADcito y la aplicabilidad de una pena es cond= ici=C3=B3n necesaria la tipificaci=C3=B3n del primero y la prescripci=C3=B3= n de la segunda por la ley penal.65 = El princ= ipio se configura, entonces, como una aut=C3=A9ntica regla de =C2=ABreconoc= imiento=C2=BB en el sentido que al t=C3=A9rmino da HART,66 <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">porque especifica las condiciones y caracter=C3=ADsticas que permit= en identificar a una regla como parte del ordenamiento sancionador:67 </sp= an>solo ser=C3=A1 ley penal aquella que denote previa y <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">56 </span= >FREUD (1992), p. 19; = y ELHART, Ra=C3=BAl: La pena seg=C3=BAn Sigmund Freud. An= =C3=A1lisis y consideraciones, p. 2. Disponible en: &#x= a0;http://www.p= ensamientopenal.com.ar/system/files/2017/06/doctrina45426.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;57 Dice FREUD: =E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'VCQGHN+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">=E2=80=A6la cultura debe ser protegida contra los individuos, y su= s normas, instituciones y mandamientos cumplen esa tarea; no s=C3=B3lo </sp= an> persiguen el fin de establecer cierta distribuci=C3=B3n de los b= ienes, sino el de conservarlos=E2=80=9D. FREUD, Sigmund= (1992), p. 6. Ver tambi=C3=A9n WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2010): Garantismo y Derecho Penal Tributario en Venezuela, (Carcas, E= ditorial Globe), pp. 313-314. 58 Vid. MART=C3=8DNEZ ROLD=C3=81N, Luis y FERN=C3=81NDEZ SU=C3=81RE= Z, Jes=C3=BAs (1999): Curso de Teor= =C3=ADa del Derecho, (Barcelona, Ariel), p. 202. = ;59 FREUD (1992), pp. 39-40; y ELHART, p. 5. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 60 FERRAJOLI </s= pan>concibe al derecho penal como =E2=80=9Cinstrumento = de tutela de los derechos fundamentales, definiendo =C3=A9stos normativamen= te los =C3=A1mbitos y l=C3=ADmites de aqu=C3=A9l en cuanto b= ienes que no est=C3=A1 justificado lesionar ni con los delitos ni con los c= astigos=E2=80=9D. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. = 335. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 61 JIM=C3=89NEZ DE AS=C3=9AA, Luis (1997): </spa= n>La ley y el delito, (Buenos Aires, Abeledo Perrot), pp. 92-93. Basado en las ideas= de VON LISZT, critica el= uso del t=C3=A9rmino. ROXIN (1997), p. 138, en nota al pie. = 0;62 FEUERBACH (1826) =C2=A720, p. 23;= y JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnther (1995): Derecho Penal. Parte Gener= al. Fundamentos y teor=C3=ADa de la imputaci=C3=B3n<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >, (Madrid, Editorial Marcial Pons), p. 79. 63 </= span>FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 368. 64 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">FE= RRAJOLI (2001), p. 369. Sobre el Derecho Sancionador =C2=ABde acto=C2=BB, v= er secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. 65 FERRAJOLI (2= 001), p. 371. 66 HART, Herbert L. A. (1= 998): El Concepto de Derecho, (Buenos Aires, Abe= ledo-Perrot), pp. 117-118. 67 FERRAJOL= I (2001), p. 374. 41 <img src=3D"d= ata:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSV= QICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEo= O9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACYck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" = alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />taxativamente las= figuras de il=C3=ADcito y de pena,68 emanada del legislador <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93<= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">=C2=ABmera=C2=BB legalidad, o reserva legal = ;punitiva=E2=80=93 y= construida sobre la base de t=C3=A9rminos de extensi=C3=B3n determinada en= la definici=C3=B3n de las figuras il=C3=ADcitas, para que sea posible su aplicaci= =C3=B3n en el lenguaje judicial como predicados =C2=ABverdaderos=C2=BB </sp= an> </sp= an>de los hecho= s procesalmente comprobados: legalidad punitiva =C2=ABestricta=C2=BB, de ac= uerdo con la cual la pena solo es aplicable con base en la ley.69 </span= > As=C3=AD, la reserva legal punitiva, expresada en la proposici=C3=B3n </sp= an>nul= lum crimen, nulla p=C5=93na sine lege, requiere <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">desdoblarse en var= ias acepciones, o puntos de vista desde los cuales quedan debidamente delim= itado = el =C3=A1mbito material = de aplicaci=C3=B3n del Derecho sancionador (se protege al ciudadano = con el Derecho sancionador) y, al tiempo, resultan salvaguardadas las g= arant=C3=ADas ciudadanas frente al potencial abuso <= /span>del Estado (se protege al ciudad= ano del Derecho sancionador). Estas condiciones se resume= n =E2=80=93 sumariamente=E2=80=93 en el car=C3=A1cter <= /span>previo, cierto, estricto y escrito de la ley penal.70 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&= #xa0;La ley penal debe ser </= span>p= revia a los hechos que pretenden ser juzgados bajo su impe= rio: as=C3=AD, la ley es advertencia,71 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">criterio de disc= ernimiento llamado a influir sobre el ejercicio de la libertad individual, = = desestim= ulando as=C3=AD el dise=C3=B1o y ejecuci=C3=B3n del =C2=ABplan racional de = vida=C2=BB potencialmente da=C3=B1ino de terceros, <= /span>y, en esa forma, f=C3=B3rmula de= prevenci=C3=B3n de la comisi=C3=B3n del acto il=C3=ADcit= o y justificaci=C3=B3n de la retribuci=C3=B3n </spa= n> poster= ior, dada la reprochabilidad de la que se reviste la conducta en raz=C3=B3n de s= u tipificaci=C3=B3n. De ello de= riva la exigencia de la lex scripta: solo en la medida en= la que la norma sancionadora ha sido emitida seg=C3=BAn el = procedimiento de producci=C3=B3n normativa previsto en el ordenamiento, pod= r=C3=A1 esta advertir eficazmente a sus destinatarios, pro= scribi=C3=A9ndose as=C3=AD la posibilidad de castigar consuetudinariamente.72 M=C3=A1xime cuando, com= o se ha dicho precedentemente, las limitaciones a la libertad ciudadana en el dise=C3=B1o y concreci=C3=B3= n del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB suponen, en resguardo de la = = dignidad humana, el consentimiento </= span>de los gobernados: as=C3=AD como en el Derecho tributario no= hay tributaci=C3=B3n sin representaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">no taxation without representation=E2=80=93, en el = Derecho sancionador tampoco: al no haber il=C3=ADcito sin ley, y no haber ley </spa= n>=E2=80=93</= span>en el Es= tado Democr=C3=A1tico de Derecho=E2=80=93 sin representaci=C3=B3n, entonces no hay il=C3=ADcito sin representaci=C3= =B3n.<= /span>73 Simul= t=C3=A1neamente, la ley penal debe ser estricta</= span>: la con= ducta punible es solo aquella detalladamente descrita en la ley penal, de modo que la actividad jurisdicci= onal permita =E2=80=93y se limite=E2=80=93 a la verificaci=C3=B3n de la verdad o falsedad f=C3=A1ctica del = enunciado normativo. Esta garant=C3=ADa se desdobla en un triple sentido. <= /span> Por una parte, combinando esta salvaguarda con la de <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lege pr= =C3=A6via, la ley penal es solo aplicable a los hechos precisamente descritos como il=C3= =ADcitos por ella luego de su entrada en vigor; esto es, la = prohibici=C3=B3n de retroactividad contra reo y, consecuencialmente, la <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">ultractividad de la ley penal que deja de= castigar, sea en todo o en parte, como exigencia irrenunciable del Estado = de Derecho.74 En segundo lug= ar, no puede haber una descripci=C3=B3n =C2=ABabierta=C2=BB, gen=C3=A9rica,= que no permita la identificaci=C3=B3n plena de 68 FERR= AJOLI (2001), pp. 377-378. 69 FERRAJOL= I (2001), p. 378. 70 JAKOBS (1995), p. = 88. 71 ROXIN (1997), p. 137. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 72 ROXIN (1997), pp. 140, 159-160: y JAKOBS (199= 5), pp. 88-89, 108-109. 73 ROXIN (1997)= , p. 145; y WEFFE (2010), p. 246. JAKOBS fundamenta solo= parcialmente al nullum crimen et nulla p= =C5=93na sine lege en el principio democr=C3=A1tic= o, dejando a salvo el problema de la retroactividad pro reo, la medida de la pena o la prohibici=C3= =B3n de leyes indeterminadas, en un sentido que, antes que contradecir, pr= ecisa lo dicho en el texto principal JAKOBS (1995), = p. 80. = ;74 FERRAJOLI (2001), pp. 381-382; ROXIN (1997), p. 161= ; y JAKOBS (1995), pp. 111-112, 124-126. 42 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJREFUeJ= zt0LENwlAUwECjpEOskB2zShZjGjoKhqB4fHE3geUCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/sttOmARW3XPL773rl7TEQCsbZ8OWMRRndVjOoT= lPatrOgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+wQcADAQDGk= pAXQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"= position:absolute" />los hechos sancionables a partir de la descripci=C3=B3n norm= ativa,75 lo que proscribe al reenv=C3=ADo indeterminado y a la integraci=C3=B3n = anal=C3=B3gica =E2=80=93o prohibici=C3=B3n de generalizaci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 del Derecho <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">sancionador.76 P= or =C3=BAltimo, el car=C3=A1cter estricto de la ley penal presupone todas l= as dem=C3=A1s garant=C3=ADas, tanto las materiales de materi= alidad de la acci=C3=B3n, lesividad del resultado y culpabilidad, como las = procesales de presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia, carga de la prue= ba y derecho a la defensa, a falta de las cuales no puede = quedar satisfecho.</span= >77 = Como resulta ya evidente, todos estos sentidos del principio reconducen a l= a idea de certeza78 <= /span>como corolario de la seguridad jur=C3=ADdica en el Derecho = sancionador, en forma sustancialmente similar a la de nuestr= a disciplina: as=C3=AD como no hay tributum sine le= ge, no= hay, entonces, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">il=C3=ADcito ni= pena sin lege certa.79 Todas estas premisas fundan al Derecho s= ancionador guatemalteco, tanto general como especial en lo <= /p>tributario, com= o mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n del sistema represivo. As=C3=AD lo consagra= la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, al declarar at=C3=ADpicas a las conductas que = no hayan sido tipificadas y penadas previamente a su realizaci=C3=B3n por la ley,</= span>80 con independencia del sector del ordenamiento en= cargado de la regulaci=C3=B3n de los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos a= s=C3=AD protegidos,81 y la retroactividad de la regulaci=C3=B3n sanciona= dora m=C3=A1s benigna al infractor.82 Otro tanto predica el C=C3=B3digo Penal,= cuando establece discriminadamente las distintas acepciones del principio: = lex pr= =C3=A6via et scripta, en t=C3=A9rminos id=C3=A9nticos a los constitucionales;</sp= an>83 y de lex stricta </= span>et certa, a trav=C3=A9s de la pr= ohibici=C3=B3n de integraci=C3=B3n anal=C3=B3gica en la interpretaci=C3=B3n= y aplicaci=C3=B3n de la ley penal.84 Tambi=C3=A9n el C=C3=B3digo Procesal Pen= al consagra expresamente la lex pr=C3=A6via et scripta,= prohibiendo el inicio del proceso y la imposici=C3=B3n de penas que no hubieren si= do establecidas con anterioridad.85 Por su parte, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario consag= ra la reserva legal punitiva para infracciones y sanciones, incluyendo recargos y multas,86 </spa= n>los procedimientos administrativos y jurisdiccionales sancionad= ores tri= butarios87 y la extinci=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n = penal y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la pena, respecto de las infracciones </spa= n> = tributarias,88 adem=C3=A1s de la prohibici=C3=B3n de analog=C3= =ADa para el establecimiento de infracciones y sanciones tributarias =E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lex strict= a et certa=E2=80=9389 y de la garant=C3=ADa de = lex pr=C3=A6via a trav=C3=A9s de la regla= de retroactividad pro reo.90 No obstante, el C=C3=B3digo Tributa= rio condiciona la operatividad pr=C3=A1ctica de la retroactividad <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">pro reo = a la ausencia de = cosa juzgada formal, administrativa o jud= icial, respecto del caso. En nuestra opini=C3=B3n ello &= #xa0;e= s inconstitucional, pues contradic= e, por limitativo, el car=C3=A1cter absoluto del mandato de la Constituci= =C3=B3n91 75 JAKOBS (1995), p. = 95. 76 JAKOBS (1995), p. 100. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 77 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 380. </= span>78 ROXIN (1997), p. 138; y JAKOBS (1995), pp. 81-82. </sp= an> 79 WEFFE (2010), pp. 244-245. &#x= a0;80 Art=C3=ADculo 17, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica= de Guatemala. 81 Lo q= ue, evidentemente, incluye a la tributaci=C3=B3n como objeto fundamental de= protecci=C3=B3n del Derecho sancionador econ=C3=B3mico. As=C3=AD lo confi= rma el art=C3=ADculo 239, inciso f) de la Constituci=C3=B3n, que somete a l= a reserva de ley dictada por el Congreso la tipificaci=C3=B3n de las infra= cciones y sanciones tributarias. 82 GUA= TEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 15. = 83 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 1 y 2. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">84 GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 7. <= /span>85 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos= 1 y 2. 86 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribu= tario, art=C3=ADculo 3.4. 87 GUATEMAL= A, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 3.5. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">88 = GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 3.7. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;89 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADc= ulo 5. 90 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, art=C3=ADculos 7.3 y 66. 91 GUATE= MALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 15. </= span>43 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgAAMwLDhAB+owwuCkIYLnietghYAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMBPjunAElf1VOd0hPXe6p5OAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAFt9ggQCAqcKOyUAAAAASUVORK= 5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />al respecto: cuando cualquier ley posterior al hecho ca= stigado =E2=80=93incluso si ha sido derogada=E2=80=93 sea m=C3=A1s <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :-0.05pt"> <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">beneficiosa para el infractor, =C3=A9sta deber=C3=A1 aplicarse </sp= an>tot= almente y sin condiciones al castigo del hecho.92 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">2.2. Proporcionalidad. </p= >Como ya se ha dicho,93 </span= >los principi= os son mandatos de optimizaci=C3=B3n, que demandan que un determinado <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >valor94 se realice =C2=ABen la= mayor medida posible, de acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1cticas y jur= =C3=ADdicas existentes=C2=BB.95 Esa estimaci=C3=B3n de la medida de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">realizaci= =C3=B3n plausible del valor, en el contexto de la <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">concreci=C3=B3n = pr=C3=A1ctica del Derecho,96 es la esencia del concepto de proporcionali= dad, que est=C3=A1 conformado p= or tres subprincipios: idoneidad, necesidad y proporcionalidad en sentido e= stricto. De un lado, los princi= pios de idoneidad y necesidad responden a la necesaria estimaci=C3=B3n de l= as &#x= a0;posib= ilidades f=C3=A1cticas de realizaci=C3=B3n de una determinada acci=C3=B3n, = en t=C3=A9rminos asimilables a los del = =C3=B3ptimo de Pareto.97 </span= >Del otro, la proporcionalidad stricto sensu a= tiende a las posibilidades jur=C3=ADdicas de = concreci=C3=B3n de los valores en la m= ayor medida posible.98 El subprincipio de idoneidad se refiere a la racionalidad = teleol=C3=B3gica, o lo que es lo mismo, a la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos por el sistema y los medi= os ordenados para su consecuci=C3=B3n, excluy=C3=A9ndose a fortiori el empleo de aquellos mecanismos que = obstruyan, o que alcancen en menor medida, la realizaci=C3=B3n de estos objetivos. = Por su parte, el subprincipio de necesidad representa a la racionalidad </= span>&= #xa0;axiol=C3=B3gica: la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos, los medios u= tilizados y los valores que, en estas circunstancias, ven comprometida su concreci=C3=B3n pr=C3=A1ctica. Ello d= emanda del mecanismo para la regulaci=C3=B3n de una situaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica qu= e se logre el principio que inspira a la norma en la mayor medida <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">posible, con </sp= an>la menor afectaci=C3=B3n posible de ot= ros valores fundamentales. As=C3=AD, entre dos medios igualmente <sp= an class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">id=C3=B3neos para lograr la realizaci=C3=B3n del valor expresado de=C3= =B3nticamente en un principio P1, se debe elegir aqu=C3=A9l que sea menos lesivo frente a otro principi= o P2, que tambi=C3=A9n forma parte del ordenamiento, en 92 </s= pan>En el =C3=BAnico caso del que tenemos conocimiento en el que la Cort= e de Constitucionalidad haya tratado judicialmente el </spa= n>tema, esta no entr= =C3=B3 al conocimiento de la inconstitucionalidad que aqu=C3=AD se alega, s= obre la base de defectos formales de la impugnaci=C3=B3n. Sentencia de la= Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 27 de enero de 2015, (Wapa, S.= A., en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad contra el art=C3=ADculo 66 del= C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Expediente 4346-2013). Disponible en: <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;http://143.= 208.58.124/Sentencias/830007.4346-2013.pdf. Entendemos que, a nivel de tesi= s de grado, existe pronunciamiento en Guatemala en un sentido similar al d= el texto principal. Vid. AMADO PELLECER, Claudia Mar=C3=ADa = ;(1999): </span= >An=C3=A1lisis cr=C3=ADtico de la inconstitucionalidad del Art=C3= =ADculo 66 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Implicaciones de la irretroactividad= en el tratamiento de figuras contrav= encionales del derecho penal com=C3=BAn y el derecho tributario administrat= ivo-sancionador, (Ciudad de Guatemala, </p= >Universidad Francisco Ma= rroqu=C3=ADn), pp.49. 93 Ver Secci=C3= =B3n 2. 94 &#= xa0;Los valores= son inicio y fin del Derecho, toda vez que de ellos deriva, primero, el </= span>ideal del Derecho, que como tal </= span>condiciona la ele= cci=C3=B3n de medios para su realizaci=C3=B3n; y segundo, el criterio de va= loraci=C3=B3n de las soluciones de un determinado sistema jur=C3=ADdico,= como ya se ha dicho en el texto principal. Dicho de otro modo, los princip= ios son la expresi=C3=B3n de=C3=B3ntica =E2=80=93</sp= an>bajo la forma performativa de un mandato=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de los valores. Vid. WEFFE (2018), pp. 128-129. </p= >95 ALEXY, Robert (2001): =E2=80=9CLos derechos f= undamentales y el principio de proporcionalidad=E2=80=9D, = Revista Espa=C3=B1ola de Derecho Constitucional, N= o. 91 (Madrid, Centro de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales), pp. 1= 1-29. Disponible en: https://recyt.fecyt.es/index.php/REDCons/article/view= /40010/22639. 96 ALEXY= , Robert (2001): Teor=C3=ADa de los Derechos Fundamentales= , (Madrid, Centro de Estudios Pol=C3=ADticos y Constitucionales. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Madrid), p. 138. 97 En t=C3=A9rminos g= enerales, una situaci=C3=B3n dada es =C3=B3ptima en el sentido de P<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt"= >ARETO si, en ella, no es posible mejorar la situaci=C3=B3n </spa= n> de u= no de los intervinientes sin desmejorar la del otro. Vid. STIGLITZ, Joseph = E. (2003): Econom=C3=ADa del Sector P=C3=BAblico<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= , = (Barcelona, Antoni Bosch Editor), p. 69. 98 </= span>ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 p. 13. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">44 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt"><img src=3D"data:image/png;base6= 4,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwS= FlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCA= j3h6cYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"p= osition:absolute" />condiciones ideales, si existe un medio que intervenga en men= or medida y que sea igualmente id=C3=B3neo, ser=C3=A1 posible realizar una posici=C3=B3n sin tener que per= judicar a la otra.99 = Aunado a estas dos primeras manifestaciones del juicio de raciona= lidad, a las que es posible calificar como de =C3=ADndole f=C3=A1ctica, la <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">ponderaci=C3=B3n introduce el criterio de distinci=C3=B3n = jur=C3= =ADdica de las posibilidades </span= >racionales de actuaci=C3=B3n en los c= asos en los que los principios P1 y P<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">2</= span>, coinci= dentes en la regulaci=C3=B3n de una determinada situaci=C3=B3n f=C3=A1ctica, se con= tradicen entre s=C3=AD. En este caso, la ponderaci=C3=B3n supone una </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">relaci=C3=B3n = de proporcionalidad inversa entre = la afectaci=C3=B3n de un valor y la satisfacci=C3=B3n del otro, de modo que= cuanto = mayor es el grado de insatisfacci=C3=B3n de P1, tanto mayor tiene que = ser la importancia de la satisf= acci=C3=B3n de P2.100 En consecuencia, la elecci=C3=B3n de cu=C3=A1l = es la soluci=C3=B3n predominante, =C2=ABde acuerdo a las posibilidades f=C3=A1ctica= s y jur=C3=ADdicas existentes=C2=BB, pasa por la fundamentaci=C3=B3n racion= al del proceso ps=C3=ADquico que conduce a la determinaci=C3=B3n del enunciado de= preferencia; esto es, a las distintas formas de argumentaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica, = lo que es perfectamente controlable racionalmente y sirve, adem=C3=A1s, com= o base para la motivaci=C3=B3n de la sentencia, en tanto dis= curso racional pr=C3=A1ctico.101 Sobre esta base, es posibl= e predicar la relaci=C3=B3n necesaria102 entre el conjunto de valores qu= e = 0;fundamentan axiol=C3=B3gicame= nte al Derecho, cuya protecci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 encomendada al Derecho </spa= n> </spa= n>Sancionador, y el par=C3=A1metro de = medida de la realizaci=C3=B3n plausible de estos valores,= teniendo presente el car=C3=A1cter, tambi=C3=A9n fundamenta= l, de los derechos de la persona que ha dirigido concreta y = contingentemente su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB hacia el ejercicio in= justo de la coerci=C3=B3n o restricciones a <= /p>la libertad de terceros, o a causar da= =C3=B1o.103 2.2.1. Prim= er subprincipio: idoneidad. Nullum crimen sine iniuria. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Lesividad y prot= ecci=C3=B3n exclusiva de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos. = ;La </s= pan>racionalidad teleol=C3=B3gica del Der= echo Sancionador =E2=80=93esto es, su idoneidad=E2=80=93 viene dada por el <= /span>fin de la = ;pena, concepto fundamental de = la disciplina.104 La pena, consecuencia l=C3=B3gica del delito, es acci= =C3=B3n que repele un ataque a la causa de la acci=C3=B3n perturbadora del bien jur= =C3=ADdico. Se dirige contra el infractor, al </span= >99 Vid. ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 pp. 13-14; ALEXY (2001): <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">Teor=C3=ADa=E2=80=A6 pp. 240-245; ZACCARIA, Giuse= ppe (2004): Raz=C3=B3n = jur=C3=ADdica e i= nterpretaci=C3=B3n, (Madrid, Thomson-Civitas), pp. 39-40; ROMERO-= MUCI, Humberto (2005): La racionalidad del sistema = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">de correcci=C3=B3n monetaria fiscal, (Carcas, Editorial J= ur=C3=ADdica Venezolana), pp. 40-44; ROMERO-MUCI, Humberto (2005); <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt; letter-spacing:0.15pt">Lo = r= acional y lo irracional de los intereses moratorios en el C=C3=B3digo Org= =C3=A1nico Tributario, (Carcas, AVDT), pp. 5-7; WEFFE H., Carlos = E. (2005): =E2=80=9CLa racionalidad de la armonizaci=C3=B3n tributaria=E2= =80=9D, Revista de Derecho Tributario, No. 108 (= Carcas, AVDT), pp. 10-12, 29-30. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/in= dex.php/component/k2/item/373-la-racionalidad-de-la-armonizacion- <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > tributar= ia-revista-de-derecho-tributario-n-108-asociacion-venezolana-de-derecho-tri= butario-2005; y WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2001): =E2=80=9CArmonizaci=C3=B3n, si= stema tributario e il=C3=ADcitos tributarios=E2=80=9D, en = X Jornadas Venezolanas de Derecho Tributario, Tomo II, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= (Carcas,= AVDT), pp. 373-374. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index.php/compo= nent/k2/item/423- armonizacion-sistema-tributario-e-ilicitos-tributarios. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">100 ALEXY (2001): Teor= =C3=ADa=E2=80=A6 pp. 157, 161; ALEXY (2001): D= erechos=E2=80=A6 p. 15; y WEFFE = (2018), p. 124. 101 GUASTINI, Riccardo = (1999): Distinguiendo. Ensayos de T= eor=C3=ADa y Metateor=C3=ADa del Derecho (Barcelona, Gedisa Edito= rial), p. 167; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 125-126. 102 = ALEXY (2001): Derechos=E2=80=A6 pp. 28= -29. 103 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1= . = 104 Al punto que ella le da nombre a = la disciplina y determina, con su presencia o ausencia, la pertenencia de u= na determinada regulaci=C3=B3n al =C3=A1mbito de es= ta rama jur=C3=ADdica. WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2016): =E2=80=9CInflaci=C3=B3n = y Derecho Penal Tributario. Las </sp= an>sanciones tributari= as como obligaciones =E2=80=98de valor=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D, = Revista de Derecho Tributario No. 150 (Carcas, AVDT), = p. 72. Disponible en: https://weffe.net/weffe/index.php/component/k2/ite= m/409-inflacion-y-derecho-penal-tributario-las-sanciones- <= /span>tributarias-como= -obligaciones-de-valor. 45 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:43"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5= QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D= "808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />da=C3=B1ar o = destruir los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos de que aqu=C3=A9l es titular. As=C3=AD, = la pena es protecci=C3=B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos instrumentada a trav=C3=A9s del= da=C3=B1o a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos,105 que para s= er id=C3=B3nea debe ser =E2=80=9Cuna reacci=C3=B3n adecuada que tiende a restablece= r ese equilibrio lesionado, a la afirmaci=C3=B3n del orden que ha <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>sido transgredido, desequilibrio o desor= den que materializa el da=C3=B1o social que produce el delito=E2=80=9D.</sp= an>106 En este contexto, la proporcionalidad =E2=80=93bajo la forma de la idon= eidad= =E2=80=93 responde a la pregunta: =C2=BFpuede protegerse al bien jur=C3=ADdico sin acud= ir al Derecho Sancionador? La respuesta define al principi= o de lesividad, o de ofensividad del acto107</span= >. La pena, l= a respuesta por excelencia del Derecho Sancionador, es solo id=C3=B3nea como respuesta a la conducta que= menoscaba el bien jur=C3=ADdico. Como inescindible consecuencia, de ello se sigue que no es necesaria la = pena sin que haya previamente una lesi=C3=B3n de entidad apreciable al bien jur=C3= =ADdico: nullum crimen sine iniuria. Dicho claramente, las prohibiciones = = sancionadoras solo tienen sentido </sp= an>=E2=80=93esto es, son id=C3=B3neas<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 = en la medida = en la que se destinan a las acciones reprobables por representar los m=C3=A1s grave= s costos individuales y sociales, en funci=C3=B3n de sus &= #xa0;efectos lesivos para ter= ceros. A contrario, se sigue que el Derecho Sancionador n= o es id=C3=B3neo cuando no hay = tal lesividad, aun y cuando la conducta en cuesti=C3=B3n pueda calificarse = como =C2=ABmala=C2=BB:108 toda actitud <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o comportamiento n= o lesivo para terceros es inocuo,= irrelevante para el Derecho Sancionador.109 Dicho en otras palabras: para ser= id=C3=B3neo, el Derecho Sancionador solo debe proteger bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos. E incluso, no todos los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos ameritan la pro= tecci=C3=B3n del Derecho Sancionador, sino que solo ser=C3=A1n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">tutelados aquellos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos cu= ya guarda sea necesaria, como veremos,110 </spa= n>para resgua= rdar la = convivencia.111 La tarea de identificaci=C3=B3n de estos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos</sp= an>112 parte, en primer lugar, de la Constituci=C3=B3n. El texto expresa y regula el esquema de valores que = sirve de base fundamental a una sociedad; los valores, ya se ha dicho en otra ocasi=C3=B3n, son sin=C3= =B3nimo de lo bueno.113 As=C3=AD, f=C3=A1cil es deduci= r que la protecci=C3=B3n sancionadora se extender=C3=A1 a los valores que, como tal= es, han sido positivizados a trav=C3=A9s de la Carta.114 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= Ello no es suficiente, s= in embargo, para calificar a un determinado =C2=ABbien=C2=BB como =C2=ABjur= =C3=ADdico=C2=BB, en el sentido del Derecho Sancionador: para ello, es necesaria primero una toma de postu= ra respecto de problemas esenciales al orden social. En el Estado Social y Democr= =C3=A1tico de Derecho, forma pol=C3=ADtica que por <= /span>decisi=C3=B3n fundamental se ha = dado Guatemala,115 la primac=C3=ADa la tiene la protecci=C3=B3n de la pe= rsona humana <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">y su dignidad,</sp= an>116 =E2=80=9Ccomo sujeto y fin del orden social</spa= n>=E2=80=9D.<= /span>117 Consecuencialmente, ello determina que los valores que prima facie deben gozar de = la protecci=C3=B3n del Derecho Sancionador son los bienes individuales, los= 105 WEFFE (2016), p. 72; y VON = LISZT (1994), p. 77. 106 ARTEAGA S=C3= =81NCHEZ, Alberto (2009): Derecho Penal Venezolano<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">, (Caracas, Ediciones Liber), pp. 567, 569. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">107= FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 93. 108 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 473. 109 FERRAJOL= I (2001), pp. 464-465. 110 Ver Secci= =C3=B3n 2.2.2. 111 MIR PUIG, Santiago (= 1994): El Derecho Penal en el Estado Social y Democr=C3=A1= tico de Derecho, (Barcelona, Editorial Ariel), p. = ;159; y GONZ=C3= =81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX, Eduardo (2003): Apuntes de Der= echo Penal Guatemalteco, (Guatemala, Fundaci=C3=B3n &#x= a0;Myrna </span= > Mack)= , = p. </spa= n>19. = Disponible </sp= an> en:= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">http://www.myrnamack.org.gt/images/publicaciones_fmm/Apuntes%20de%20Derec= ho%20Penal.pdf. 112 MIR PUIG (1994), p.= 163; ROXIN (1997), pp. 56-58. 113 WEFF= E (2018), p. 119; y ALEXY (2001): Teor=C3=ADa=E2= =80=A6 pp. 140-141. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">114 Vid. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 472. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">115 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 1. </= span>116 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=AD= culos 1 y 4. 117 GUATEMALA, Constituci= =C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, Pre=C3=A1mbulo. 46 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJ= ztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe= 6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width= =3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /><span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que afectan en may= or medida y m=C3=A1s directamente a los individuos.118 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">As=C3=AD, dado qu= e el Derecho <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sancionador est=C3= =A1 a la orden del individuo y no al rev=C3=A9s, los intereses colectivos intere= san al Derecho <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Sancionador en l= a medida en la que interfieren con el =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB ind= ividual, siempre desde la persp= ectiva de la lesividad de la conducta que, como criterio rector, informa la noci= =C3=B3n de idoneidad =E2=80=93 </s= pan> y por esta = v=C3=ADa, la de proporcionalidad=E2=80=93 en el Derecho Sancionador.119 </spa= n> 2.2.2. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'"> </sp= an>Segundo= subprincipio: necesidad. Nullum crimen sine </= span>neces= sitate. Subsidiariedad, m=C3=ADnima intervenci=C3=B3n. Materialidad de la <= /span> acci=C3=B3n, o Derecho Sancionador =C2=ABde acto=C2= =BB. Una vez determinado qu=C3=A9 se debe castigar = =E2=80=93como se ha visto, funci=C3=B3n del subprincipio de idoneidad</= span>=E2=80= =93 &#= xa0;, la necesidad resuelve la = cuesti=C3=B3n del c=C3=B3mo castigar, tomando en consider= aci=C3=B3n la relaci=C3=B3n entre los fines perseguidos =E2=80=93la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes= jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93, los medios utilizados =E2=80=93la pena<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 <= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">y los restantes valores en juego, en especial, la libertad y la dignidad d= el infractor.120 En otras palabras, =C2=BFde qu=C3=A9 manera <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = castigar afectando lo menos posible </s= pan>los dem= =C3=A1s valores en juego? De ello se sigue, como condici=C3=B3n, el = = examen de </spa= n>racionalidad axiol=C3=B3gica, o en otras palabras, del subprin= cipio de necesidad, una de las pa= rtes en la que se descompone el =C2=ABmandato de optimizaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB de la pro= porcionalidad.121 El subprincipio de necesidad se manifiesta en el Derecho Sancion= ador de varias maneras, complementarias entre s=C3=AD. En primer lugar, desde el pu= nto de vista material axiol=C3=B3gico la pena es </s= pan>necesariamente subsidiaria, el </s= pan>=C3=BAltimo recurso a utilizarse cuando ninguna otra medida = jur=C3=ADdica122 est=C3=A1 en &= #xa0;capacidad de ofrecer una= respuesta eficiente al da=C3=B1o que supone el hecho il=C3=ADcito. Por ese= ncia, la intervenci=C3=B3n sanc= ionadora =E2=80=9Csupone una intromisi=C3=B3n del E= stado en la esfera de libertad del ciudadano, que solo resulta tole= rable cuando es estrictamente necesaria =E2=80=93inevitable=E2=80=93 </= span>p= ara la protecci=C3=B3n del mismo ciudadano=E2=80=9D,</spa= n>123 de modo que =E2=80=93al mismo tiempo=E2=80=93 se proteja al ciudadano <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:-0.05pt">con y del Derecho Sancionador, en el sentido anotado previamente.124 </= p>118 MIR PUIG (1994), p. 164. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; le= tter-spacing:normal"> 119 Sin embargo, esta es una= tarea llena de problemas. En opini=C3=B3n de FERRAJOLI<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">,= la tarea de definir del bien jur=C3=ADdico en <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">sentido positivo -esto es, = prefiguradora del =C2=ABqu=C3=A9 castigar=C2=BB- supone, o bien un car=C3= =A1cter expansivo contradictorio con la idea </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">de= subsidiariedad expuesta en el texto principal, o bien excesiva <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">estrechez, por su fuerte contenido individualista. En el ca= so de estas =C3=BAltimas resalta una consecuencia: lo restringido de su co= ncepci=C3=B3n de bien jur=C3=ADdico compromete la posibilidad de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= justific= ar racionalmente el bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de protecci=C3=B3n por= el delito de defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria, entre otros </spa= n>ejemplos. Vid. FERRA= JOLI (2001), p. 471. 120 = As=C3=AD lo hemos afirmado en una ocasi=C3=B3n previa: =E2=80=9C<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">Todo ser humano =E2=80=93<= /span>incluso aquel de quien es predicable la condici=C3=B3n de i= nfractor seg=C3=BAn la norma primaria de Kelsen=E2=80=93 tiene derecho a que se considere su estatus = jur=C3=ADdico en funci=C3=B3n del ejercicio de su proyecto de vida, de su <= /span> capacidad de elegir y con referencia al bien-en-com=C3=BAn qu= e justifica axiol=C3=B3gicamente a las regulaciones jur=C3=ADdicas. Estos c= onceptos =E2=80=93= lejos de ser contradictorios=E2=80=93 </spa= n>son complementarios, dado que la realizaci=C3=B3n del bien com= =C3=BAn depende directamente del respeto del bienestar individual de cada <= /span> uno de los integrantes de la comunidad, lo que tambi=C3=A9n i= ncluye necesariamente =E2=80=93</spa= n>como se ha dicho=E2=80=93 a= l sujeto a quien se dirige la conminaci=C3=B3n de </= span>la norma p= rimaria, en los t=C3=A9rminos previamente expuestos=E2=80=9D. WEF= FE (2018), p. 154. 121 Vid. Sentencia d= e la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 7 de junio de 2013 (Colegi= o de Abogados y Notarios de Guatemala, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionali= dad contra varios art=C3=ADculos de las Disposiciones para el Fortalecimien= to del Sistema Tributario y el Combate a la Defraudaci=C3=B3n y al Contrab= ando, Expediente 1898-2012), p. 4. Disponible en: </= p>http://143.208.58.124/Se= ntencias/822861.1898-2012.pdf. 122 Por = naturaleza menos invasiva, pues la pena encarna el poder de la fuerza estat= al ejercida sobre el individuo. 123 MIR PUIG (1994), p. 151. 124 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. </= span>47 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2= u04ElPtW7uk1HWO+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAPzyBUz0BO5NnbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" s= tyle=3D"position:absolute" />Esta idea es la que, tradicio= nalmente, se identifica como principio de subsidiariedad, o de m=C3=ADnima </sp= an>&#x= a0;intervenci=C3=B3n, del Derecho Sancionador. En efecto, c= onsiderando que este constituye la medida m=C3=A1s <= /span>radical d= e defensa de los valores esenciales a la convivencia social, que como tales= son base axiol=C3=B3gica del ordenamiento, e incluso del po= der que para su protecci=C3=B3n se ejerce.125 Esa protecci=C3=B3n debe= = ;despleg= arse =C3=BAnicamente en casos extremos, cuando ya no queda otra salida pos= ible, en una forma solo = justificable en tanto que, como se ha di= cho, el Derecho Sancionador se dirija =E2=80=93cualitativamente=E2=80=93 a la protecci=C3=B3n exclusiva de bienes jur=C3=ADdico= s, y en la medida en la que =E2=80=93cuantitativamente=E2=80=93 la respuesta= (pena) corresponda racionalmente con la agresi=C3=B3n sufri= da por aquellos, en proporci=C3=B3n con la medida </= span>de la responsabilidad personal de= quien ha cometido el hecho.126 As=C3=AD, la proporcionalidad <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= entendida </s= pan> </s= pan>como necesidad=E2=80=93 supone la pond= eraci=C3=B3n de bienes =E2=80=9Cen el sentido de un= a prohibici=C3=B3n de exceso: los da=C3=B1os y = 0;peligros que parten del autor deben soportarse, a pesar del inter=C3=A9s p= reventivo en evitarlos, cuando son menores que la &= #xa0;p=C3=A9rdida de l= ibertad que conllevar=C3=ADa la medida para el implicado=E2=80=9D.127 <= /span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Ya lo dec=C3=ADa = la Declaraci=C3=B3n de los Derechos del Hombre y del Ciudadano de 1789: la = ley =E2=80=9Cs=C3=B3lo debe establecer penas estricta y evidentemente nece= sarias=E2=80=9D128. La intervenc= i=C3=B3n que supone el Derecho Sancionador </= p>en la esfera individual solo se justific= a en la medida en la que, como se ha dicho, este se dirija exclusivamente a la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes j= ur=C3=ADdicos. Es en el tipo de protecci=C3=B3n </s= pan>que se br= inda a esos bienes =E2=80=93</s= pan>la pena</= span>=E2=80= =93 y no en la esencia de estos bienes (por ejemplo, el or= den econ=C3=B3mico y la funci=C3=B3n de = determinaci=C3=B3= n y recaudaci=C3=B3n en el Derecho Tributario) que se halla la esencia del = Derecho Sancionador, y en consecuencia el forzoso car=C3=A1c= ter complementario, secundario, subsidiario, de este.129 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= E= n este sentido, para que pueda predicarse de la pena su car=C3=A1cter =C2= =ABestricto=C2=BB y =C2=ABevidentemente = necesario=C2=BB, es preciso que esta sea= consecuencia de una conducta vinculada causalmente =E2=80=93esto es, imputable=E2=80=93 a la pauta de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">lesivida= d, comentada previamente.130 L= os il=C3=ADcitos, como presupuesto de la = sanci=C3=B3n, no pueden estar referidos = al fuero interno: solo aquella conducta emp=C3=ADricamente observable </spa= n> </spa= n>=E2=80=93y en consecuencia, susceptible de= descripci=C3=B3n por la ley penal=E2=80=93 es apta para fundar el reproche <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = sancionador.131 En otras palabras, la pena debe constituir una respuesta frente a un act= o y no= frente a una = persona, en ta= nto que es la conducta =E2=80=93y no la persona en s=C3=AD, por = su dignidad inherente=E2=80=93132 la que es capaz </spa= n> </spa= n>de producir el da=C3=B1o al bien jur= =C3=ADdico que es relevante al Derecho Sancionador para determinar su </spa= n> </spa= n>proporcionali= dad, en el sentido expresado. As=C3=AD definido, el Derecho Sancionador definido co= nforme al principio de proporcionalidad es =C2=ABde acto=C2=BB, <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = y no =C2=ABde aut= or=C2=BB. No es la personalidad del infractor la relevante a los fines de l= a protecci=C3=B3n exclusiva, id=C3=B3nea y necesaria =E2=80=93en una pal= abra, proporcional=E2=80=93 de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos: nadie, por el solo hecho de ser, = = 125 El ius puni= endi. Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. 126 </spa= n>Cfr. MIR PUIG (1994), p. 167; y FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 465. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;127 ROXIN (1997), p. 106. </= p>128 DECLARACI=C3=93N DE LOS DERECHOS DEL HOMBRE Y DEL CIUDADANO = (1789), art=C3=ADculo 8. Disponible en: https://www.conseil-constitutionn= el.fr/sites/default/files/as/root/bank_mm/espagnol/es_ddhc.pdf. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;129 DE RIVACOBA, Manuel (1994): =E2=80=9CFranz v= on Liszt y el =E2=80=98Programa de Marburgo=E2=80=99=E2=80=9D, en VON LISZT= , Franz, La idea del fin en el Derecho Penal (Ciudad de M=C3= =A9xico, Universidad Nacional Aut=C3=B3noma de M=C3=A9xico =E2=80= =93 Universidad de Valpara=C3=ADso de = Chile), p. 46. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 130 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1.1. </= span>131 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 480. = 132 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52. 48 </span= > <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAA= AMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFU= eJztzkENgEAQALFBATYQiQCM4eveYGBzSaugBQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HdMB= zZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAjwX+AgICYbAd3wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>lesiona o pone en peligro concreto a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos.</sp= an>133 Una concepci=C3=B3n tal instrumentaliza al individuo, y por tanto es contradicto= ria con la dignidad que le es inherente y, por supuesto, con la <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> racionalidad de un = Derecho Sancionador garantista.134 Por ello se ha= dicho, con acierto, que el principio de materialidad de la acci=C3=B3n es el coraz= =C3=B3n del garantismo sancionador, y que da valor pol=C3=ADtico y <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>consistencia l= =C3=B3gica y jur=C3=ADdica a gran parte de las dem=C3=A1s garant=C3=ADas.</= span>135 = 2.2.3. Tercer = </= span>subpr= incipio: proporcionalidad &#= xa0;stricto </= p>sensu. Razonabilidad de la pena. En tercer lugar =E2=80=93y en sentido estricto=E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la proporcionalid= ad supone el juicio de ponderaci=C3=B3n. Esta apreciaci=C3=B3n se basa en el balance entre las alternativa= s racionales de ejercicio del ius puniendi, para que, por una parte, se evite el ejercicio del poder punitivo c= uando los da=C3=B1os a bienes jur=C3=ADdicos derivados de su uso (en espec=C3=ADfic= o, los del infractor) exceden los beneficios emanados de la protecci=C3=B3n= de los bienes jur=C3=ADdico-sancionadores. Esta forma de proporcionalidad= 136 es a la que nos hemos referido previamente, <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">bajo las formas de lesividad137 y m=C3=ADnima intervenci=C3=B3n</= span>138 respectivamente. Por su parte, la proporcionalidad tamb= i=C3=A9n implica la relaci=C3=B3n de correspondencia entre la magnitud del = da=C3=B1o infligido al bien jur= =C3=ADdico por el autor y la sanci=C3=B3n que este recibe, tomando en cuent= a todas las circunstancias f=C3= =A1cticas =E2=80=93objeto de los juicios de idoneidad y necesida= d=E2= =80=93 y jur=C3=ADdicas, resumidas en las necesidades de prevenci=C3=B3n, tanto general como especial, y la culp= abilidad. As=C3=AD, es criterio base para la determinaci=C3=B3n <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = de la pena que es= ta debe ser proporcional a la gravedad del hecho cometido.139 </sp= an> Esta relaci=C3=B3n de congruencia entre entidad de la infracci=C3=B3n y = la de la sanci=C3=B3n debe establecerse con <= /p>base en dos par=C3=A1metros esenciales.= 140 El primero es la =C2=ABnocividad social=C2=BB= del hecho, sobre la se estructuran las finalidades prevent= ivas d= e la pena, tanto general como especial:141 es necesario que la pena </= span> </= span>disuada, tanto al infractor com= o a terceros, de replicar el hecho punible, y que =E2=80=93adem=C3=A1s=E2=80=93 afirme la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>vigencia de la no= rma.142 El segundo, como ya se ha dicho, es el de= la congruencia entre la pena y la gravedad del hecho cometido, que complementa </s= pan>=E2=80=93= natura= lmente= =E2=80=93 al principio de culpabilidad: solo la <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">conducta que es </= span>r= eprochable es punible, y el castigo se determinar=C3=A1, l= =C3=B3gicamente, a trav=C3=A9s de una relaci=C3=B3n = de simet= r=C3=ADa directa entre el da=C3=B1o realizado al bien jur=C3=ADdico y la sa= nci=C3=B3n,143 de modo que =E2=80=93siguiendo la <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 133 Como dice Pessina =E2=80=93citado por F<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:8pt">E= RRAJOLI=E2=80=93 nadie delinque por lo que es, sino por= lo que hace. FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 482. <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:normal"> 134 Dicho con la paladina c= laridad de FERRAJOLI, =E2=80=9C<= /span>la tarea del derecho es razonablemente la de prevenir y pro= hibir acciones da=C3=B1osas y no la d= e estigmatizar la maldad humana ni la de sacrificar chivos expiatorios por = males que no han realizado, o bien en el sentido de que s=C3=B3lo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt"> las acciones externas, y no las internas, pued= en ser eficazmente prohibidas y prevenidas por la ley=E2=80=9D. F= errajoli; Derecho=E2=80= =A6 p. 481. 135 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 484. 136 ROXIN (1= 997), p. 106. 137 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.= 1. 138 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 139 MIR PUIG, Santiago (2008): Derecho Penal. Parte General. (Barcelona, Editorial Reppertor), = p. 127. 140 MIR = PUIG (2008), p. 128. </sp= an> 141 JAKOBS (1995), p= . 12; y WEFFE (2016), p. 73. 142 WEFFE = (2010), p. 367. 143 Esta forma de propo= rcionalidad es la que, indirectamente, utiliz=C3=B3 la Corte de Constitucio= nalidad en su decisi=C3=B3n de 7 de junio de 2013 para fundamentar la conf= ormidad a la Constituci=C3=B3n de la clausura aplicable a las =C2=ABinfracc= iones espec=C3=ADficas=C2=BB tipificadas en el art=C3=ADculo 85 del C=C3= =B3digo Tributario. Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemal= a de 7 de junio de 2013 (Operadora de QSR de Guatemala, S. A., vs. Rep=C3= =BAblica de Guatemala (Superintendencia de Administraci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;Tributaria)= , Expediente 4531-2012), p. 4. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentenc= ias/822571.4531-2012.pdf. 49 <sp= an style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:47"><img = src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAA= AABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElR= RoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr= +3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH7RB2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFT= kSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />=C2= =ABf=C3=B3rmula del peso=C2=BB=E2=80=93144 </spa= n>a ma= yor da=C3=B1o, mayor pena,145 determinada tanto legislativa (proporcionalidad = = abstracta) como judicialmente (= proporcionalidad concreta). En lo atinente a la proporcionalidad, la Constituci=C3= =B3n limita la posible incidencia del ius puniendi sobre el derecho de propiedad, someti=C3=A9ndolo a l=C3=ADmi= tes estrictos. Seg=C3=BAn la dicci=C3=B3n de la Carta,146 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = confiscaci=C3=B3n= , directa o a trav=C3=A9s de la imposici=C3=B3n de sanciones pecuniarias ex= orbitantes, est=C3=A1 radicalmente prohibida, y concretamente en materia tributaria= , la multa no podr=C3=A1 exceder del valor del impuesto que resulte omitido como co= nsecuencia del obrar il=C3=ADcito del sujeto pasivo tributario. <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> Parad=C3=B3jicamente, la Corte de Constitucionalidad ha limitado el alc= ance de la regla constitucional en comentarios sobre la base= de su interpretaci=C3=B3n literal:147 solo puede demandarse protecci=C3= =B3n de la proporcionalidad con base en ese art=C3=ADculo en el caso de sanciones p= ecuniarias limitativas del derecho de propiedad (esto es, la= multa) y no en el caso de sanciones pecuniarias limitativas de otros derec= hos econ=C3=B3micos del infractor, como por ejemplo la liber= tad econ=C3=B3mica y =E2=80=93curiosamente=E2=80=93 el uso y goce de = = los bienes del infractor, como ocurre = en el caso de la clausura de establecimientos por infracciones <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">tributarias tipificadas en el C=C3=B3digo T= ributario.148 2.3.Non bis in =C3=ADdem <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">El principio </s= pan>no= n bis in =C3=ADdem, corolario de la proporcionalidad en ma= teria sancionadora, consiste en una doble prohibici=C3=B3n. = La primera es de naturaleza sustantiva: al momento de tipificar delitos, in= fracciones y sanciones,149 el legislador est=C3=A1 impedi= do =E2=80=93non=E2=80=93 de castigar un mismo= hecho =E2=80=93bis=E2=80=93 m=C3=A1s de una= vez =E2=80=93 =C3=ADdem<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= , siempre que= el comportamiento sancionatoriamente relevante no lesione m=C3=A1s de un b= ien &#= xa0;jur=C3=ADdicamente tutelado= .150 A contrario, el castigo m=C3=BAltiple de la= conducta =C2=ABpluriofensiva=C2=BB, la que ataca simult=C3=A1neamente varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos, es pe= rfectamente v=C3=A1lida en tanto la sanci=C3=B3n sea una para cada agravio, y pr= oporcional a la entidad de los bienes conjuntamente protegidos y del da=C3= =B1o producido por 144 ALEXY (2= 001): Los derechos=E2=80=A6 p. 16. &#x= a0;145 Vid. ROJAS, Ivonne Yenissey (2015): =E2=80=9CLa = proporcionalidad en las penas=E2=80=9D, Pensamiento Penal= , pp. 88-89, 93. 146 GUATEMAL= A, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 41. </spa= n>147 Sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala= de 22 de agosto de 2006 (Marina Octavia Enr=C3=ADquez Oliva, &#x= a0;en el incide= nte de inconstitucionalidad de ley en caso concreto de los p=C3=A1rrafos te= rcero y cuarto del art=C3=ADculo 86 del C=C3=B3digo = Tributario, Expediente= 550-2006), pp. 5-6. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/807710= .550-2006.pdf. 148 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 85 y 86. 149 </sp= an>Esto es, el ius puniendi </sp= an>=C2=ABlegislativo=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica = exclusiva del Estado-legislador para crear </spa= n>las normas que tipifican <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">en forma previa, escrita y estricta los hechos punibles y sus consecuenci= as, noci=C3=B3n que se identifica con la reserva legal</sp= an>, en </= span>nuestro caso pena= l tributaria. Vid. WEFFE (2010), p. 192. 150 </s= pan> El concepto de bien jur=C3=ADdico conforma el aspe= cto axiol=C3=B3gico b=C3=A1sico del Derecho Sancionador. El ordenamiento </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; l= etter-spacing:0.05pt">configura a la sociedad como un =C3=A1mbito de desarr= ollo del =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB individual (RAWLS), en condiciones de </= p>libertad y dignidad que = aseguren el libre desarrollo de la personalidad, por una parte, e igual con= sideraci=C3=B3n y respeto (DWORKIN<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">), por la otra. La protecci=C3=B3n de ese =C3=A1mbito social de libertad = y dignidad frente al ataque de terceros, entendida <= /p>= como un motivo sensible (BECCAR=C3=8DA<= /span>) para la acci=C3=B3n punitiva (A</span= >TIENZA y RUIZ MANERO), permite incorporar una referencia </= span>valorativa al fin= del Derecho sancionador: se castiga el hecho que ataca =E2=80=93por ello =C2=ABpunible=C2=BB=E2= =80=93 las expectativas generales de <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">cumplimiento del orden jur= =C3=ADdico (JAKOBS), restableciendo su plena vigencia. E= n la medida en que a este proceso se le reconoce un componente <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">valorativo, se cataloga a esa valoraci=C3=B3n como bien pr= otegido por el Derecho, un =C2=ABbien jur=C3=ADdico=C2=BB. = Vid. RAWLS (199= 5), pp. 370-377; DWORKIN, Ronald (2002): Los Derechos en S= erio (Barcelona, Editorial Ariel), pp. 388- </spa= n>389; BECCARIA, Cesar= e (2003): De los delitos y de las penas, (Bogot= =C3=A1, Editorial Temis), pp. 9-11, ATIENZA y RUIZ <= /p>MANERO (1991), pp. 110 = y ss; JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnther (1998): Sobre la teor=C3=ADa de= la pena, (Bogot=C3=A1, Universidad Externado de = Colombia), p. 2= 7; y WEFFE (2010), pp. 313-318. Ver tambi=C3=A9n Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.1. </span= > 50 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVB= ORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAA= AOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I6CHgFcLplRMAUAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8uEwHlrhXj+qYjrDeq3pOJwDY7TodWOJTvavbdIT1zuk= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAA8BdfVtAE7t2AO+8AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"8= 08" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />la acci=C3=B3n as=C3=AD definida (esto= es, proporcional stricto sensu)= .151 Co= mo f=C3=A1cilmente puede constatarse, la conducta pluriofensiva es el objet= o material del llamado concurso ideal de infracciones: la violaci=C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur= =C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ataque a varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93 p= or un mi= smo comportamiento.152 Teniendo siempre presente = la proporcionalidad, los sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos </s= pan>reaccionan de tres grandes modos f= rente a todas las formas de concurrencia de infracciones, incluyendo al concurso id= eal. Una posibilidad, t=C3=ADpica de los sistemas de Common Law<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">, es la de la acumulaci=C3=B3n material: al acto pl= uriofensivo se le aplican conjunta y sucesivamente153 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">todas las penas </= span> </= span>legalmente establecidas para el h= echo. Una segunda posibilidad es la de la absorci= =C3=B3n: al acto pluriofensivo se le aplica =C3=BAnicamente la pena que resulta m=C3=A1s = grave en la valoraci=C3=B3n abstracta que hace el legislador, quedando las dem=C3= =A1s penas aplicables absorbidas por aqu=C3=A9lla. La tercera opci=C3=B3n, = ecl=C3=A9ctica, es la de la lla= mada acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica: al acto pluriofensiv= o se le aplica la pena que resulte m=C3=A1s grave, junto con una fracci=C3=B3n lega= lmente determinada de las restantes sanciones aplicables.154 </spa= n> La segunda prohibici= =C3=B3n, de naturaleza adjetiva, constituye la acepci=C3=B3n m=C3=A1s conoc= ida del t=C3=A9rmino: el titula= r de la potestad sancionatoria,155 sea el juez o la Administraci=C3=B3n,= 156 tiene vedado =E2=80=93non=E2=80=93 perseguir un mismo hecho =E2=80=93bis=E2=80=93 m=C3= =A1s de una vez =E2=80=93=C3=ADdem=E2=80=93, siempre que <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= una vez m=C3= =A1s= =E2=80=93 el comportamiento sancionatoriamente relevante no lesione m=C3=A1s de un bien j= ur=C3=ADdicamente tutelado. En este orden de ideas, la bifurcaci=C3=B3n<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, la persecuci=C3= =B3n m=C3=BAltiple de la conducta =C2=ABpluriofensiva=C2=BB, configura </sp= an> </sp= an>tambi=C3=A9n un caso particular,</s= pan>157 v=C3=A1lido, de concreci=C3=B3n de la garant=C3=ADa de non bis in =C3=ADdem, en la medida en la <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">que el procedimie= nto sea como m=C3=A1ximo uno para cada agravio, y el ejer= cicio conjunto del ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB sea arm=C3=B3nico y pr= oporcionado a la entidad de los bienes conjuntamente protegidos y del </spa= n> = 151 Un ejemplo simple de delito pluri= ofensivo es el delito de extorsi=C3=B3n, tipificado en el art=C3=ADculo 261= del C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala. Bajo la caracterizaci=C3=B3n normativ= a, la conducta extorsiva ataca simult=C3=A1neamente tres bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos: la propiedad, la integridad f=C3=ADsica y la libertad. = 0;152 WEFFE (2010), p. 369. = 153 Cuando la distinta naturaleza de las penas impide su = refundici=C3=B3n, el compendiar en una nueva pena otras= penas distintas dando origen a otra =C3=BAnica y distinta. Vid. GARC=C3= =8DA SAN MART=C3=8DN, Jer=C3=B3nimo (2015): La acumulaci= =C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica de penas, (Madrid, Ministerio del Interior= de Espa=C3=B1a =E2=80=93 Secret= ar=C3=ADa General T=C3=A9cnica), pp. 25-26. Disponible en: http://www.institucionpenitenciaria.es/web/export/sites/default/dat= os/descargables/publicaciones/Acumulacion_juri <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">dica_de_penas_1_Accesit_VK_= 2015.pdf. 154 WEFFE (2010), p. 66. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">155 Esto es, una medida del poder general = del Estado =E2=80=93competencia= =E2=80=93 para perseguir y castigar las lesiones a bien= es jur=C3=ADdicos producidas a trav=C3=A9s de las acciones que el ordenami= ento tipifica como il=C3=ADcitas. En su acepci=C3=B3n =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB,= el ius puniendi encarna la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica exclusiva = del Estado-juez para la determinaci=C3=B3n de la existencia de un= hecho punible con sus modos y circunstancias de comisi=C3=B3n, identific= aci=C3=B3n de los responsables =E2=80=93</= span>autores y part=C3=ADcipes, seg=C3=BAn el caso=E2=80=93 </= span>e individualizaci=C3=B3n de la pena a la que, en raz=C3=B3n de su = participaci=C3=B3n en el hecho, los responsables se han hecho acreedores</s= pan>. WEFFE (2010), p. 206. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">156 Al contrario de lo que la separaci=C3=B3n de= funciones estatales por obra de la juridificaci=C3=B3n del Estado, product= o de la Revoluci=C3=B3n Francesa, pudiera sugerir, en la pr=C3=A1ctica el = ejercicio del ius puniendi <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">=C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB no puede ser monopolio de los </span= >tribunales. La eficie= ncia en la tutela del inter=C3=A9s p=C3=BAblico comprometido en ciertas for= mas de actividad administrativa, particularmente la tributaria, determin= =C3=B3 la necesaria asunci=C3=B3n, por la Administraci=C3=B3n, del <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt; letter-spacing:0.05pt">ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB= para las llamadas infracciones =C2=ABadministrativas=C2=BB: en el Derecho= Administrativo, a esa competencia se la llama potestad sa= ncionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n, que hoy d=C3= =ADa se acepta con pr=C3=A1ctica unanimidad, si bien con variaciones en su = fundamento. En el Derecho guatemalteco, el art=C3=ADculo 98.4 del C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario consagra la potestad sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n.= Vid. GARC=C3=8DA DE ENTERR=C3=8DA, Eduardo y FERN=C3=81NDEZ, Tom=C3=A1s R= am=C3=B3n (2017): Curso de Derecho = Administrativo II, (Madrid, Thomson <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Reuters), T=C3=ADtulo V, cap= . XVIII; PE=C3=91A SOL=C3=8DS, Jos=C3=A9 (2005): = La potestad sancionatoria de la administraci=C3=B3n p=C3=BAblica = venezolana, (Caracas, Colecci=C3=B3n de Estudios Jur=C3=ADdico= s No. 10. TSJ), pp. 50-51; y WEFFE (2018), p. XXXVIII. = 157 Caso especial y no excepci=C3=B3n, puesto que la prohibici= =C3=B3n en comentario es igualmente aplicable al hecho pluriofensivo, </spa= n> en l= a forma que se explica en el texto principal. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:11pt">51 </s= pan> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAn= AAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJR= EFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElRRoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr+3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAH7RB= 2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D= "position:absolute" />da=C3=B1o producido por la acci=C3=B3n pluriofensiva.</span= >158 Evidentem= ente, la bifurcaci=C3=B3n de procedimientos sancionadores lleva impl=C3=ADc= ito el riesgo de decisiones contradictorias sobre los mismos hechos, por una parte,= y de solapamiento entre los distintos =C3=B3rdenes = sanciona= dores en violaci=C3=B3n del non bis in =C3=ADdem, por la = otra. Ello exige una debida coordinaci=C3=B3n entre las &= #xa0;dos esferas, penal y adm= inistrativa, en el ejercicio del ius puniendi.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">15= 9 Dos son las principales medidas <= /span>que sirven a ese objetivo. La pr= imera es la prejudicialidad, que ordena los procedimientos en funci=C3=B3n = = de la prevalencia para el estab= lecimiento de los hechos de un =C3=A1mbito =E2=80=93normalmente, el penal=E2=80=93<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">16= 0 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">respecto del o= tro, impidiendo a este un pronunciamiento antes de la decisi=C3=B3n de aqu= =C3=A9l, o incluso pronunciarse del todo.161 Correlativamente, la segunda pauta es la de l= a comunicabilidad limitada de las pruebas, que se resume en la imposibilidad de utilizaci=C3=B3n de pruebas de = un =C3=A1mbito en el otro por la indebida limitaci=C3=B3n de derechos </spa= n> </spa= n>fundamentales= que devendr=C3=ADa de su traslaci=C3=B3n, aun a pesar de haber sido obteni= das legalmente en el procedimiento de origen. Ese es el caso= de la intervenci=C3=B3n de comunicaciones postales, telef=C3=B3nicas o </s= pan> electr=C3= =B3nicas, viable en el proceso penal cuando no hay otra forma razonable de = conocer si un delito gra= ve se ha cometido (como por ejemplo, terrorismo o delincue= ncia organizada), o si existe un riesgo = inminente de da= =C3=B1o, no evitable por medios menos intrusivos, a trav=C3=A9s de un fuert= e control judicial que permite su compatibilidad con el Esta= do de Derecho162 y que, por lo mismo, hace a la prueba inviable <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>en el marco del procedimiento administr= ativo sancionador.163 Otro caso, a la inversa, es el de la <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">obtenci=C3=B3n admini= strativa de evidencia sobre la base del deber general de colaboraci=C3=B3n,= que obliga a los ciudadanos a suministrar todo tipo de informaci=C3=B3n relevante = a la Administraci=C3=B3n bajo amenaza de sanci=C3=B3n, aunque esos datos puedan con= stituir la base para demostrar la comisi=C3=B3n de infracciones por = <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">quien los suministra,164 cuesti=C3=B3n qu= e =E2= =80=93= por violatoria de la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia=E2=80=93 es inadmisible en <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >el proceso penal.= 165 158 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">159 MORCILLO MORENO, Juana (2007): </spa= n>Teor=C3=ADa y pr=C3=A1ctica de las cuestiones prejudiciales en = el =C3=A1mbito administrativo, (Madrid, La </span= >Ley), p. 435. = 160 MORCILLO MORENO (2007), p. 435. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 161 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">P=C3=89REZ-PLAYA MORENO, Cri= stina (2007): La tramitaci=C3=B3n separada del procedimien= to sancionador tributario, (Granada, <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Universidad de Granada), p.= 49. Disponible en: https://hera.ugr.es/tesisugr/1657168x.pdf. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;162 WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2017); =E2=80=9C<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= The right to be informed: The Parallel between Criminal Law and Tax Law, wi= th Special Emphasis on Cross-Border Situations=E2=80=9D<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >, World Tax Journal, Vol. 9, No. 3 (Amsterdam, = IBFD), p. 462. Disponible en: https://online.ibfd.org/kbase/#topic=3Ddoc&a= mp;url=3D/document/wtj_2017_03_int_4. 163 </sp= an> HUERGO LORA, Alejandro (2016): La ut= ilizaci=C3=B3n de la prueba penal en los procedimientos administrativos san= cionadores. Disponible en: https://almacendederecho.org/la-u= tilizacion-la-prueba-penal-los-procedimientos-administrativos- <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;sancionador= es/ 164 HUERGO LORA (2016). <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;165 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">En nuestra opini=C3=B3n, la = presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia es una garant=C3=ADa fundamental derivada del = principio de culpabilidad, esencial a todas <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">l= as formas de ejercicio del ius puniendi, inclus= ive en sede administrativa. Ello hace constitucionalmente <= /span>inadmisible la i= nvocaci=C3=B3n del deber de colaboraci=C3=B3n como base de la actividad pro= batoria de cargo de la Administraci=C3=B3n, en supuestos que obligan al ap= ortante a la autoinculpaci=C3=B3n, en raz=C3=B3n de la prohibici=C3=B3n </s= pan>nemo tenetur se ipsum accusare. Esto no es pac=C3=ADficamente aceptado, sin emb= argo, con base en la atribuci=C3=B3n a la potestad sancionadora de la Admin= istraci=C3=B3n de una naturaleza distinta a la penal, =C3=A1mbito al que= resultar=C3=ADan aplicables estos principios. Vid. MEDINA CALVO, Lorna (20= 02): =E2=80=9CEl derecho a no autoinculparse y a no declarar contra s=C3=AD mismo: An=C3=A1li= sis de la Jurisprudencia del Tribunal Europeo de <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">De= rechos Humanos y la Jurisprudencia Norteamericana=E2=80=9D, Revista de Derecho Tributario No. 95 (Caracas, AVDT), pp. 13-16= ; = WEFFE (2010), pp. 489-492; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 178-180. = 52 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAA= AANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQB= D6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1jEVwlAQAMElRRoE0EVeXMUVKjBAiwW64/NmFGy5BQAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/+02HbCIozqr+3QIy3tW13QEAGszcN/Zq0e1TYewvHf1mo4AAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAH7RB2m7BAPpj8ELAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />El sistema sancionador tributario guatemaltec= o recoge normativamente estas garant=C3=ADas. En su vertiente <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">sustantiva, el non bis in =C3=ADdem = es reconocido como regla espec=C3=ADfica de la proporcionalidad s= ancionadora por el C=C3=B3digo Tributario, que proh=C3=ADbe a la Administraci=C3=B3= n Tributaria el ejercicio de su potestad sancionadora m=C3=A1s de una vez.166 Al tiempo, tanto el C=C3=B3dig= o Procesal Penal como el C=C3=B3digo Tributario hacen lo propio desde el punto de vista adjetivo, cuando p= or un lado se veda la m=C3=BAltiple persecuci=C3=B3n penal por el mismo hecho,167 y por el otro se inhi= be el ejercicio de la potestad sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para los casos en los que= de la investigaci=C3=B3n hecha por la autoridad fiscal se deduzca que el hecho perseguido puede tener car= =C3=A1cter penal.168 2.4.Culpabilidad.16= 9 La culpabilidad es reprochabilidad: la cualidad de la conducta </s= pan>in= justa = =E2=80=93esto es, t=C3=ADpica y antijur=C3=ADdica<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </spa= n>de ser </sp= an> </sp= an>imputada a una persona como a su au= tor consciente y libre,170 que de esa forma ha le= sionado o ha puesto en peligro concreto al bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de la p= rotecci=C3=B3n sancionadora.171 La conducta culpable es, entonces, aquella que contraviene al ordenamie= nto en una doble v=C3=ADa: primero, la regla que consagra al bien jur=C3=ADdico como susceptible de protec= ci=C3=B3n sancionadora, y segundo, la libertad y la dignidad de la v=C3=ADctima, en= condiciones en las que el autor, aun teniendo la posibilidad de actuar de = otro modo,172 ha decidido actuar d= eliberadamente para obtener el resultado da=C3=B1oso, o bien ha omitido el = cuidado = que su posici=C3=B3n frente al bien jur=C3=ADdico le exig=C3=ADa para resgu= ardarlo.173 As=C3=AD entendida, la culpabilidad es elemento= insustituible, tanto de justificaci=C3=B3n como de l=C3=ADmite, de todas <= /span> las forma= s en las que puede ejercerse v=C3=A1lidamente el ius puniendi <span= class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">en Derecho, y muy especialmente en = el Derecho Tributario Sancionador.</span= >174 Sin la culpabilidad, el Derecho Sancionador pierde buena parte <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = de su justificaci= =C3=B3n axiol=C3=B3gica: es, como se=C3=B1ala calificada doctrina, un eleme= nto insustituible del sentimiento com=C3=BAn de justicia, al punto de que cualquier= forma de responsabilidad objetiva o sin culpa 166 GUAT= EMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 90. Ver sentencia de la Corte = de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 3 de marzo de 2015, (Operadora de QS= R de Guatemala, S. A., vs. Rep=C3=BAblica de Guatemala (Superintendencia de= Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria), Expediente 4531-2012), p. 4. Disponible = en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/822571.4531-2012.pdf. = 167 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADcul= o 17. 168 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, art=C3=ADculos 70 y 90. De acuerdo con la Corte de Constitucionalidad= , la interacci=C3=B3n de estas dos disposiciones evita la doble persecuci= =C3=B3n y castigo por el mismo hecho, ofreciendo =E2=80=93a su juicio=E2=80=93 garant= =C3=ADa id=C3=B3nea de estos derechos del ciudadano. Sentencia de la Corte= de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 10 de enero de 2012, (Jos=C3=A9 </sp= an> Rob= erto Hern=C3=A1ndez Guzm=C3=A1n, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad en = caso concreto contra el art=C3=ADculo 86 del C=C3=B3digo </= span>Tributario </span= > de Guatemala, </= span>Expediente </span= > 2832-2013), </span= >pp. <= /span>7-8. Disponible <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">en: = http://143.208.58.124/= Sentencias/830271.2832-2013.pdf 169 El = desarrollo de esta secci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1 fuertemente basado en nuestras pr= evias reflexiones sobre el tema. Vid. WEFFE (2018). = 170 Vid. FRANK, Reinhardt (2000): Sobre la es= tructura del concepto de culpabilidad, (Buenos Aires, Editorial B= de F.), pp. 39-40. 171 De acuerdo con = el principio de lesividad. Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.1. <= /p>172 Esto es, que la conducta conforme a Derecho le ha sido </sp= an>asequible, en palabras de ROXIN, o que el autor podia actuar de </= span>otro modo, en pal= abras de Goldschmidt. Vid. ROXIN, Claus (1981): Culpabilid= ad y prevenci=C3=B3n en Derecho Penal, (Madrid, <= /span>Editorial Reus),= pp. 41-48; ROXIN (1997), pp. 799-800, 807-812; GOLDSCHMIDT, James (2002): = La concepci=C3=B3n normativa </span= >de la culpabil= idad, (Buenos Aires, Editorial B de F.), pp. 87-90; SCH= UNEMANN, Bernd (2000): =E2=80=9CLa culpabilidad. Estado <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > de la cu= esti=C3=B3n=E2=80=9D, en: Sobre el Estado de la Teor=C3=AD= a del Delito, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 103; y WEFFE (2018)= , p. 160. 173 Esto es,= la conciencia de la ilicitud de la conducta. Dentro de la teor=C3=ADa gene= ral del delito, como formas subjetivas de realizaci=C3=B3n de la conducta,= el dolo y la culpa est=C3=A1n comprendidas dentro del requisito de = tipicidad. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), p= . 25. 174 WEFFE (2018), p. 246. = 53 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBO= Rw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAA= OxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAC5wyR9vqDoZm01aBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAhlzTgSWe6q3u6Qjr/dU3nQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgC0OggMCAj3h6cY= AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positio= n:absolute" />se entiende, sin m=C3=A1s, como b=C3=A1rbara e injusta.<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">175= El ca= stigo solo se justifica =E2=80=93en Derecho=E2=80=93 como consecuencia del ejercicio irracional de la libertad por parte del autor= , que supone da=C3=B1o, o de alguna forma coacci=C3=B3n o restricci=C3=B3n a la lib= ertad y a la dignidad ajenas.176 Dicho de otro modo, la sanci=C3=B3n </s= pan>=E2=80=93= = ;como po= sibilidad unilateral de alteraci=C3=B3n del status jur=C3= =ADdico del infractor=E2=80=93 es =C3=BAnicamente v=C3=A1lida cuando esta toma en cuenta la libertad y la dignidad del= autor.177 En efecto, todo ser humano =E2=80=93incluyendo al infractor=E2=80=93 tiene derecho a que se c= onsidere su condici=C3=B3n de persona dotada de dignidad, en funci=C3=B3n de su capacida= d de elegir y de dirigir, en consecuencia, su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB</sp= an>178 hacia el cumplimiento del Derecho. As=C3=AD, sola= mente en el caso que el individuo exceda la esfera de libert= ad propia, vulnerando la libertad y dignidad de un tercero, el enunciado </= span> jur=C3=ADd= ico =C2=ABil=C3=ADcito-sanci=C3=B3n=C2=BB hallar=C3=A1 justificaci=C3=B3n d= e=C3=B3ntica, y ser=C3=A1 exigible v=C3=A1lidamente.179 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Bajo estas </spa= n> </spa= n>premisas, la culpabilidad es un pres= upuesto necesario de la sanci=C3=B3n,180 lo que permite predicar del </s= pan> </s= pan>principio una doble funci=C3=B3n. = En primer lugar, la culpabilidad justifica <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">a la sanci=C3=B3n, en tanto sirve como </sp= an>mecanismo de protecci=C3=B3n de la = v=C3=ADctima. Segundo, la culpabilidad limita a la sanci=C3=B3n, pues ella pie= rde &#= xa0;justificaci=C3=B3n racional= axiol=C3=B3gica en su ausencia, como mecanismo de protecci=C3=B3n del vict= imario.181 As=C3=AD, al igual que ocurre con la reserva legal, la culpabilidad s= irve a la protecci=C3=B3n del ciudadano con </spa= n>y <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">del </sp= an>&#x= a0;Derec= ho Sancionador.182 Ning=C3=BAn hecho o comportami= ento humano puede ser susceptible de sanci=C3=B3n </= span>si no es f= ruto de una decisi=C3=B3n: si no es intencional, la conducta no puede ser s= iquiera prohibida, mucho menos castigada, y para ser tal debe haber sido realizada = por consciencia y voluntad por una persona capaz de entender y de querer.183 </s= pan>En estos t= =C3=A9rminos, el principio de culpabilidad adopta la forma de tres condicio= nes subjetivas de responsabilidad, necesarias para un modelo= sancionador garantista.184 La primera de ellas es la personalidad de la acci=C3=B3n, que designa la su= sceptibilidad de imputaci=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito a su autor; esto es, la <= /span> <= /span>relaci=C3=B3n de causalidad que = vincula la acci=C3=B3n final del autor185 con el resultado punible.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">1= 86 La = segunda es la imputabilidad, la capacidad de entender y de querer o, lo que es lo m= ismo, la medida de la aptitud para ser sujeto del Derecho Sancionador.187 = En ter= cer lugar, la culpabilidad stricto sensu, que designa la conciencia y voluntad en el il= =C3=ADcito individual y concreto, la posibilidad racional de conciencia del= 175 FERRAJOLI (2001), p. 489. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">176 KANT (2007), pp. 48, 51-52; y ANDRAD= E RODR=C3=8DGUEZ (2018), p. 42. 177 WEF= FE (2018), p. 164. 178 FINNIS, John (20= 11): Natural Law and Natural Rights= , (Oxford, Oxford University Press), p. 100; RAWLS (1995), pp. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">3= 70-377; y WEFFE (2018), p. 145 179 WEFF= E (2018), p. 168. 180 JAKOBS, G=C3=BCnt= her (1996); Fundamentos del Derecho Penal, (Buen= os Aires, Ad-Hoc), p. 16. 181 JESCHECK= , Hans Heinrich (2003): =E2=80=9CEvoluci=C3=B3n del concepto jur=C3=ADdico<= /span>-penal de culpabilidad en Alemania y Austria=E2=80=9D, <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">Revista Electr=C3=B3nica </s= pan>de Ciencia Penal yCriminolog=C3=ADa, No. </p= >05-01, <= /span>p. 01:1. Disponible </spa= n>en: = http://criminet= .ugr.es/recpc/05/recpc05-01.pdf; y Weffe; Culpabilidad</sp= an>=E2=80=A6 pp. 166-170. 182 </sp= an>Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. 183 FERRAJO= LI (2001), p. 487. 184 FERRAJOLI (2001)= , p. 490; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 171-172. 185 </sp= an>Vid. WELZEL, Hans (1956): Derecho Penal, parte gener= al, (Buenos Aires, Depalma), pp. 35-36. </= p>186 En este sentido se pronunci=C3=B3 la Corte de Constitucional= idad, al analizar en amparo la procedencia constitucional de la <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;imputaci= =C3=B3n en l=C3=ADnea objetiva de responsabilidad sancionadora en un supues= to de responsabilidad tributaria por representaci=C3=B3n (directores, gere= ntes y administradores). Ver sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de= Guatemala de 25 de octubre de 2017, (Silvia Patricia Dorigoni V=C3=A9liz = vs. Rep=C3=BAblica (Superintendencia de Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria), </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">E= xpediente 1770-2016), p. 8. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias= /837234.1770-2016.pdf 187 WEFFE (2018= ), pp. 304-305; y GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), p. 26. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 54 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJztzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntX= z+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfYAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808= " alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />car=C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico del hech= o. &#x= a0;As=C3=AD, el principio de cu= lpabilidad sirve como criterio de correcci=C3=B3n de la adecuada atribuibil= idad de la sanci=C3=B3n al auto= r del acto antijur=C3=ADdico. Seg=C3=BAn su enunciado m=C3=A1s general, es = necesario estimar = valorativamente la orientaci=C3=B3n volitiva del actor frente al = bien jur=C3=ADdico protegido, de acuerdo con las </s= pan>circunstancias en las que se verif= ic=C3=B3 el acto antijur=C3=ADdico, para fundamentar as=C3=AD axiol=C3=B3gi= camente la vinculaci=C3=B3n ent= re dicho acto y su autor, a t=C3=ADtulo de responsable, acreedor a la sanci= =C3=B3n.188 En este </span= >sentido, la culpabilidad significa es= pecialmente personalidad, seg=C3=BAn el cual el binomio c= orrelativo =C2=ABacto antijur= =C3=ADdico-sanci=C3=B3n=C2=BB solo puede establecerse respecto del <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">autor <= /span>del acto tipificado como il=C3=ADcito. De tal modo, la sanci=C3=B3n= es necesariamente consecuencia de la relaci=C3=B3n entre el acto antijur= =C3=ADdico y su autor culpable: =C3=BAnicamente la persona que dirige consciente y = libremente su conducta a la realizaci=C3=B3n del </s= pan>acto il=C3= =ADcito es la que puede, l=C3=B3gicamente, ser objeto del reproche = que es esenci= al al concepto de = culpabilidad.189 De igual modo, la libertad y la dignidad que tiene toda= persona humana por el solo hecho de serlo permite presuponer, presumir, que frente a la posibilidad f=C3=A1cti= ca de da=C3=B1ar o amenazar concretamente un bien jur=C3=ADdico la persona actuar= =C3=A1 conforme con un =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB y, en consecuencia= , no lo da=C3=B1ar=C3=A1 ni lo amenazar=C3=A1: en otras pala= bras, que ser=C3=A1 inocente. De esta simple deducci=C3= =B3n dimana la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia,190 = una regla de distribuci=C3=B3n de la carga de la prueba qu= e, estructuralmente, supone un proceso deductivo mediante el cual se infiere un hec= ho desconocido =E2=80=93la inocencia del imputado=E2=80=93 a trav=C3=A9s de un hecho conocido que normalmente acompa=C3=B1a al act= uar humano: el car=C3=A1cter de persona del acusado y, por consiguiente, su dignid= ad y su capacidad de elegir conforme con las previsiones del ordenamiento. La presu= nci=C3=B3n de inocencia configura, entonces, una expresi=C3=B3n del princip= io de = culpabilidad en su aspec= to adjetivo, en la medida en la que permite que el acto il=C3=ADcito se </s= pan>reproche, se <= /span>impute a= l autor, solo a trav=C3=A9s de la constataci=C3=B3n plena de que =C3=A9ste = ha dirigido su voluntad consciente y libre a la realizaci=C3=B3n del acto antijur= =C3=ADdico, habiendo tenido la posibilidad de actuar de otro modo, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>conforme con el =C3=A1mbito de libertad= y dignidad de la v=C3=ADctima.191 En este sentido, la Cort= e de Constitucionalidad ha declarado que la iniciaci=C3=B3n del procedimien= to judicial para la imposici=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n al co= ntribuyente imputado por la hipot=C3=A9tica comisi=C3=B3n de infracciones tributari= as192 inaudita partem, sin que este sea notificado del procedimiento an= tes de la remisi=C3=B3n al juez de paz competente, ni tampoco se le permita oponer = excepciones ni defensas que permitan el descargo, <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-sp= acing:normal">en sede administrativa,193 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">contra los ele= mentos de convicci=C3=B3n de la supuesta comisi=C3=B3n de la infracci=C3=B3n tributaria formal castigada c= on clausura, se constituye en una forma de presunci=C3=B3n de culpabilidad, contraria al principio en com= entarios.194 Esta comprensi=C3=B3n de la culpabilidad, como reprochabilidad </spa= n>del acto an= tijur=C3=ADdico atribuible personalmente <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-sp= acing:normal"> a su autor = consciente y libre es esencial a toda forma del Derecho Sancionador, inclus= ive cuando este <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">188 WEFFE (2018), pp. 173, 180. = 189 WEFFE (2018), p. 192. </= span>190 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=AD= culo 14. 191 WEFFE (2018), pp. 178-17= 9. 192 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributari= o, art=C3=ADculo 85. 193 Siguiendo el p= rocedimiento legalmente establecido en el art=C3=ADculo 146 del C=C3=B3digo= Tributario. 194 Sentencia de la Corte = de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 22 de agosto de 2006, (Marina Octavia= Enr=C3=ADquez Oliva, en el incidente de inconstitucionalidad de ley en = caso concreto de los p=C3=A1rrafos tercero y cuarto del art=C3=ADculo 86 de= l C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Expediente 550-2006), pp. 5-6. Disponible en: ht= tp://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/807710.550-2006.pdf. = = 55 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= AB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALFDA06wg0MEoO9lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACY= ck0Hlniqr7qnI6z3V+90AgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgCUOyWgCAvvOv6YAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>se dirig= e a la protecci=C3=B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos objeto de regulaci=C3=B3n p= or el Derecho Tributario. La cu= lpabilidad constituye un concepto jur=C3=ADdico fun= damental, que integra necesariamente todo enunciado jur=C3=ADdico que tenga como consecuencia jur=C3=ADdica una = sanci=C3=B3n por el incumplimiento de una obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, sea material o formal, para justific= ar axiol=C3=B3gicamente la relaci=C3=B3n entre acto antijur=C3=ADdico </spa= n> </spa= n>tributario, autor y sanci=C3=B3n.</s= pan>195 3= . El sistema sancionador tributario guatemalteco.= Algunos comentarios sobre sus problemas aplicativ= os, y su influencia en el ISLR. La regulaci=C3=B3n material del Derecho Tribut= ario Sancionador en Guatemala est=C3=A1 bifurcada. Sobre la base de la distinci=C3=B3n = ontol=C3=B3gica entre delitos y contravenciones,196 la legislaci=C3=B3n guatemalteca regula los </spa= n>primeros =E2=80=93que conforman el Derecho Penal= Tributario stricto sensu=E2=80=93 en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, y los segundos <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = =E2=80=93que forman el Derecho Tributario Sanc= ionador en sentido estricto=E2=80=93197 <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">en el C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Como </= p>es natural, ambos= tipos de il=C3=ADcitos procuran la protecci=C3=B3n de la funci=C3=B3n de d= eterminaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria </spa= n>=E2=80=93il=C3=ADcitos formales=E2=80=93 y del orden econ=C3=B3mico =E2=80=93<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">il=C3=ADcitos ma= teriales=E2=80=93 que est=C3=A1n <= /p>comprometidos en= el cumplimiento y la eficiente recaudaci=C3=B3n del ISLR en Guatemala. Seg= uidamente, debemos pasar a su an=C3=A1lisis, limit=C3=A1ndonos =E2=80=93por obra de la definici=C3=B3n del tema bajo estudio y de las <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> demandas editoriale= s=E2= =80=93 al estudio de la estructura y principales problemas= aplicativos derivados de aquellas regulaciones que, tanto e= n un =C3=A1mbito como en el otro, inciden en el efectivo cumplimiento </spa= n> = del ISLR en e= l pa=C3=ADs. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spacin= g:normal">3.1. El r=C3=A9gimen infraccional tributario. Parte General. </sp= an> El T=C3=ADtulo III del C=C3=B3digo Tributario, intitulado = =C2=ABinfracciones y sanciones=C2=BB,198 comprende dos cap=C3=ADtulos. <= /span> <= /span>En el primero de ellos, se regul= an las instituciones comunes fundamentales del Derecho Sancionador <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Tributario, que = junto con las disposiciones constitucionales previamente comentadas, ofrece= n cauce formal y material al ejercicio de la potestad sancio= nadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria. = 3.1.1. Validez material y tem= poral de la ley sancionadora tributaria. </span= >El primer obje= to del C=C3=B3digo Tributario es la del establecimiento del =C3=A1mbito mat= erial y temporal de regulaci=C3=B3n del Derecho Tributario Sancionador. Respecto de= l primer punto, como se ha dicho,199 el <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= 0.15pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">C=C3=B3digo tipif= ica las infracciones tributarias y regula al ius puniendi ejercible por la Administraci=C3=B3n 195 = WEFFE (2018), pp. 246-248. 196 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">WEFFE (2018), pp. 209-218. 197 WEFFE = (2010), pp. 159-160. 198 Probablemente = influido por el Modelo de C=C3=B3digo Tributario para Am=C3=A9rica Latina, = preparado por la Organizaci=C3=B3n de Estados Americanos y por el Banco = Interamericano de Desarrollo en las postrimer=C3=ADas de la d=C3=A9cada de = 1960, y que ha servido de base para la redacci=C3=B3n de varios de los C= =C3=B3digos Tributarios nacionales de varios pa=C3=ADses de la regi=C3=B3n.= GIULIANI FONROUGE, Carlos; GOMES DE SOUSA, Rubens y VALD=C3=89S COSTA, Ra= m=C3=B3n (1968): Modelo de C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario (Washington, D.C., Preparado = para el Programa Conjunto de Tributaci=C3=B3n OEA/BID. Uni=C3=B3n Panameric= ana, Secretar=C3=ADa General de la Organizaci=C3=B3n de los Estados Americ= anos). 199 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 3.1. </span= > 56 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVB= ORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAA= AOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAs= IAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positi= on:absolute" />Tributaria en todas sus vertientes,200 sin perjuicio de la regu= laci=C3=B3n material que, particularmente en lo atinente a la tipificaci=C3=B3n de conductas constitutivas= de infracci=C3=B3n, hagan las leyes tributarias especiales.201 As=C3=AD, la reserva legal sancionadora= tributaria en Guatemala es abierta: cualquier ley puede = = tipificar infracciones tributar= ias siempre que esta sea emitida por el Congreso, en tanto esta materia es = = objeto d= e la reserva parlamentaria.202 Respecto de lo segundo, el = C=C3=B3digo Tributario refrenda la regla general de validez temporal de la = ley sancionadora tributaria, tempus regit actum<span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">: la ley que sirve a la determinaci=C3=B3n de la punibilidad de un </s= pan> hecho y de la sanci=C3=B3n que le es aplicable es la ley vigent= e al momento de la comisi=C3=B3n del hecho.203 S= olo excepcionalmente, la regla admite relajaci=C3=B3n a favo= r de la ley que aminore o excluya la punibilidad del = ;hecho o= la responsabilidad del infractor; esto es, la regla de retroactividad, que= =E2= =80=93como se ha dicho=E2=80=93 = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">est=C3=A1 debid= amente consagrada en Guatemala, tanto constitucional como legislativamente.= 204 Sin= embargo, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario condiciona la operatividad pr=C3=A1ctic= a de la retroactividad pro reo a la ausencia de cosa juzgada formal. Respetuosamente, consideram= os que la limitaci=C3=B3n legislativa es = inconstitucional por dos razones. En pri= mer lugar, desde el punto de vista de la teleolog=C3=ADa constitucional, la regla contradice el car=C3=A1c= ter fragmentario y necesario205 de la potestad sa= ncionadora estatal con base en el privilegio al principio de= seguridad jur=C3=ADdica, la certeza que dimana de la res iudicata = = por sobr= e la dignidad del infractor, que demanda un Derecho Sancionador <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">m=C3=ADnim= o206 y, en consecuencia, excluye la posibilidad de establ= ecer excepciones a la regla de retroactividad pro r= eo. En segundo lugar, desde el punto de vista de la ex=C3=A9gesis = normativa, la norma constitucional que consagra la retroactividad pro reo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">no admite exce= pci=C3=B3n alguna, es absoluta, de modo que la limitaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3d= igo &#= xa0;Tributario en comentario es= nula, por imperio del principio de supremac=C3=ADa constitucional<= span class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">, conforme al cual =E2=80=93seg=C3=BAn la ha definido la = Corte de Constitucionalidad=E2=80=93 la Constituci=C3=B3n es ley suprema que impera sob= re &#x= a0;cualq= uier otro producto normativo en el ordenamiento, y representa la nulidad de= cualquier regla que viole o tergiverse los principios o reg= las constitucionales.207 3.1.2. Definici=C3=B3n, clasificaci=C3=B3n de las = infracciones tributarias. La secci=C3=B3n segunda del T=C3=ADtulo III del C= =C3=B3digo define a los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios en forma ampl=C3=ADsima: =C3=A9stos = ser=C3=A1n toda conducta </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>tanto act= iva como omisiva=E2=80=93 que implique violaci=C3=B3n de normas tributarias, sean </spa= n> </spa= n>200 Al ius punendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3= =ADdica exclusiva del Estado-juez para la determ= inaci=C3=B3n de la existencia de un hecho punible con sus modos y circunst= ancias de comisi=C3=B3n, identificaci=C3=B3n de los responsables <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt">=E2=80=93autores y part=C3=ADcipes, seg=C3= =BAn el caso=E2=80=93 e individ= ualizaci=C3=B3n de la pena a la que, en raz=C3=B3n de su participaci=C3=B3n= en el hecho, los responsables se han hecho acreedo= res, se suma el ius puniendi </span= >=C2=ABejecutivo=C2=BB, la capacidad jur=C3=ADdica del Estado-administra= ci=C3=B3n de hacer ejecutar la sanci=C3=B3n finalmente impuesta. Respecto = de las infracciones tributarias, esta medida del ius puniendi es atribuida = a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria por imperio del art=C3=ADculo 98.4 del= C=C3=B3digo Tributario. WEFFE (2010), p. 206. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">20= 1 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 67. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 202 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.1. y WEFFE (2007), p. 122= . = 203 WEFFE (2016), p. 88. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;204 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.1. </= p>205 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. 206 </sp= an>FERRAJOLI (2001), pp. 102-103. 207 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculos 44 y 175. Ver = tambi=C3=A9n sentencia de la Corte de Constitucionalidad de = ;Guatemala de 2= 2 de agosto de 2006, (H=C3=A9ctor Horacio Zachrisson Descamps, en acci=C3= =B3n de inconstitucionalidad contra el inciso b) del art=C3=ADculo 24 de= las Disposiciones Transitorias y Finales de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=AD= tica de la Rep=C3=BAblica, Expediente 472-94), p. 2. Disponible en: http= ://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/791796.472-94.pdf. = 57= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B9RJREFUeJztzkERgDAQALFFA06wg0MEoK8e+Nx0SBSkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAD47pwCau6qnO6Qjbe6t7OgEAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADwJwsc1gICGueJugAAAABJRU5ErkJg= gg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />sus= tanciales o formales, que =E2=80=93a=C3=B1adimos nosotros=E2=80=93 sea casti= gado con una sanci=C3=B3n.208 Adicionalmente, el C=C3=B3digo bifurca el ejercici= o del ius puniendi =C2=ABjudicial=C2=BB209 con base en= la distinci=C3=B3n entre delitos y contravenciones210, atribuyendo a la juris= dicci=C3=B3n penal =E2=80=93por una parte=E2=80=93 la persecuci=C3=B3n y </= span> </= span>castigo de los delitos <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">contra el= r=C3=A9gimen tributario, tipificados en el Cap=C3=ADtulo IV del T=C3=ADtulo X de= l C=C3=B3digo <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Penal,<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">21= 1 a sa= ber: (i) la defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria;212 (ii) la apropiaci=C3=B3n in= debida de tributos;213 y (iii) la resistencia a la acci= =C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria.214 </s= pan>Adem=C3= =A1s de estos delitos, que bien pudieran calificarse como delitos tributarios </spa= n>prop= ios en tanto la mayor=C3=ADa de las conductas t=C3=ADpicas= que procuran menoscabar el orden econ=C3=B3mico afectando e= l derecho del Estado a la percepci=C3=B3n del </span= >tributo,215 el r=C3=A9gimen tributario puede verse tambi=C3=A9n afectado por: (i) part= iculares, a trav=C3=A9s del tipo de falsificaci=C3=B3n de se= llos, papel sellado y timbres que, emitidos o controlados por la autoridad,= tengan por objeto el cobro de impuestos;216 y (ii) funci= onarios p=C3=BAblicos, a trav=C3=A9s de los delitos de exacciones <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ilegales<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 217 y = de cobro indebido.218 En este sentido, para salvaguardar la prohibici=C3= =B3n de doble <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">persecuci=C3=B3n = =E2=80= =93non bis in =C3=ADdem=E2=80=93219 el C=C3=B3digo or= dena a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria la declinatoria = de su co= mpetencia sancionadora220 cuando, al sustanciar e= l procedimiento de determinaci=C3=B3n tributaria, </= span>constate la posible existencia de= alguno de los delitos tributarios previamente enumerados. El <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">procedimiento tributa= rio seguir=C3=A1 su curso, a los efectos de la determinaci=C3=B3n de la obl= igaci=C3=B3n tributaria potencialmente insoluta, y en lo sancionador la Administrac= i=C3=B3n Tributaria pasar=C3=A1 a realizar en el proceso penal las funciones de =C3= =B3rgano auxiliar de polic=C3=ADa criminal.221 En este =C3=BAltimo sent= ido, el Juez <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Contralor de la investigaci=C3=B3n penal deber=C3=A1 permitir a los ab= ogados designados por la Administraci=C3=B3n = Tributaria el i= mponerse de las actuaciones judiciales, y coadyuvar con el Ministerio P=C3= =BAblico en la persecuci=C3=B3n penal, como aut=C3=A9nticos auxiliares fiscales.<= /span>222 208 WEFFE (2016), p. 72. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; l= etter-spacing:-0.05pt">209 Ver nota al pie= 155. 210 Ver Se= cci=C3=B3n 3. 211 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 70. 212 GUA= TEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CA=E2=80=9D y =E2=80= =9CB=E2=80=9D. 213 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CC=E2=80=9D. </p= >214 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD= =E2=80=9D. 215 Sea por= el incumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n (casos de la defraudaci=C3=B3n y l= a apropiaci=C3=B3n indebida de tributos) o por el </= p>entorpecimiento delictua= l de la funci=C3=B3n de determinaci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tribut= aria (caso de la resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">fiscalizadora). <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;216 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 328= . = 217 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculo 451. 218 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3d= igo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 452. 219 Ver S= ecci=C3=B3n 2.3. 220 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">I= mpropiamente, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario califica como denuncia lo que realmente configura <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">declinatoria de la competencia sancionadora <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria y remisi=C3=B3n del expediente sancio= nador a la jurisdicci=C3=B3n penal. La denuncia, una </span= >de las formas de inic= io del proceso penal ex a= rt=C3=ADculo 297 del C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, es =E2=80=9Cla declaraci=C3=B3n que realiza una persona </spa= n>como consecue= ncia del conocimiento que posee sobre la comisi=C3=B3n de un hecho presunta= mente delictivo y tiene como fin =C3=BAltimo hacer llegar la noticia </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-si= ze:10pt">criminal ante la Autoridad Judicial encargada de perseguirlo</span= >=E2=80=9D. ALONSO P=C3=89REZ, Francisco (Coord.) <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt">et al. (2004): Manual del Polic=C3=ADa</spa= n>, (Madrid, Editorial La Ley), p. 203. La denuncia es obligatoria, por= imperio del art=C3=ADculo 298 del mismo C=C3=B3digo, para los <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;funcionario= s que en raz=C3=B3n del ejercicio de sus competencias tengan conocimiento d= e la posible comisi=C3=B3n de un delito. Los delitos tributarios son de ac= ci=C3=B3n p=C3=BAblica, ex art=C3=ADculo 24 </sp= an>bis del C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal de Guatemala, por= lo que no es necesaria la denuncia para su persecuci=C3=B3n: es por imper= io del art=C3=ADculo 70 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario que la Administraci=C3= =B3n Tributaria se desprende del conocimiento del caso =E2=80=93declina<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= =E2=80=93 en su aspecto sancionador, y =E2=80=93en consecuencia=E2=80=93 remite las </spa= n>actuaciones a la jur= isdicci=C3=B3n penal, competente de acuerdo con la norma tributaria en come= ntarios. 221 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= rocesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos 112.4 y 115. 222 </= span>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 70; GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculo 107 bis<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= . = 58 </= p><img src=3D"data:image/png;ba= se64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAA= lwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+tJREFUeJzt1qERwlAUAMFjQOFogW7Sv0Klh1SAoABExJ+X2= a3g5BUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA/= 9xWBwzxrN7VfXUI4x3VvjoCgNkeqwOGeFVbv5GDMz4ZOAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAgAv6AkMIBCLO+IwxAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" h= eight=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Por o= tra parte, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario atribuye a la Administraci=C3=B3n Trib= utaria competencia para la persecuci=C3=B3n y castigo de todos los dem=C3=A1s il=C3= =ADcitos tributarios,223 las infracciones tributarias, tipificadas <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >fundamentalmente en el mismo C=C3=B3digo= y en las leyes tributarias especiales, bajo la llamada potestad <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >sancionadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n.<= /span>224 Estas infracciones, seg=C3=BAn la enumeraci=C3=B3n legal,<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">225= son: (i) el pago extempor=C3=A1neo de retenciones; (ii) la mora; = (iii) la omisi=C3=B3n del pago de tributos; (iv) la resistencia a la </span= > </span= >acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Admin= istraci=C3=B3n Tributaria; (v) el incumplimiento de las obligaciones </span= > </span= >tributarias fo= rmales; y (vi) los dem=C3=A1s tipos de infracciones tributarias establecida= s en las leyes tributarias especiales. = Desde ya, la enumeraci=C3=B3n previa hace patente la posible transgresi=C3= =B3n a la garant=C3=ADa sustantiva de non bis in =C3=ADdem,226 = en tanto la resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de = la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria es infracci=C3=B3n = ;y delito tributario <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">al mismo= tiempo. El peligro se maximiza al constatar que ambos tip= os de il=C3=ADcitos est=C3=A1n constituidos por las mismas conductas: obstaculiza= r o impedir la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, sea por (i) el incumplimien= to del requerimiento para el suministro de informaci=C3=B3n tributaria, contable o = financiera; o por (ii) obstruir el acceso inmediato a los soportes <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">materiales de la informaci=C3=B3n relevante a fines tributarios;</sp= an>227 o por (iii) estorbar la inspecci=C3=B3n o verificaci=C3=B3n de los lugares donde= se haya realizado el hecho imponible o donde reposen los elementos = <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">materiales necesarios para su determinaci=C3=B3n, para evitar el ri= esgo de alteraci=C3=B3n o destrucci=C3=B3n de </span= >evidencias.228 La =C3=BAnica diferencia entre ambos radica en la autoridad requirente,= como elemento material del il=C3=ADcito: la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria en la= infracci=C3=B3n,229 el juez penal en el delito.230 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;En e= l caso en el que, v=C3=A1lidamente, se argumente que la prohibici=C3=B3n de= bis in =C3=ADdem queda salvaguardada &= #xa0;al prorrogar la competen= cia de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para castigar, en el caso en el qu= e el &= #xa0;r= equerimiento de informaci=C3=B3n para la fiscalizaci=C3=B3n haya pasado a l= a jurisdicci=C3=B3n penal,231 entonces la </spa= n> = situaci=C3=B3n vulnera las garant=C3=ADas de reserva legal,</span= >232 proporcionalidad y de igualdad.233 En efecto, en= la situaci=C3=B3n descrita es =C3=BAnicamente la decisi=C3= =B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria la que determina cu=C3=A1l es </s= pan> la sanci=C3= =B3n aplicable en el caso concreto, si la =C2=ABadministrativa=C2=BB o la p= enal. De este modo, ante situaciones totalmente id=C3=A9nticas el castigo ser=C3=A1 muy = diferente, dependiendo del caso. Adem=C3=A1s del <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">non bis in =C3=ADdem sustantivo, la situaci=C3=B3n en comentarios vu= lnera otra garant=C3=ADa fundamental del orden sancionador. En efecto, el uso de la= conminaci=C3=B3n sancionadora para reforzar el deber de &= #xa0;colaboraci=C3=B3n con la= Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para aportar datos relevantes con fines tri= butarios atenta directamente co= ntra el derecho del ciudadano a que se le presuma inocente,234 </s= pan>y en cons= ecuencia 223 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3= =ADculo 69. 224 = Ver nota al pie 156. 225 <= /span>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 71. &#x= a0;226 Ver Secci=C3=B3n 2.3. </p= >227 Libros, documentos, archivos, sistemas inform=C3=A1ticos vin= culados con el pago de impuestos, etc. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo &#x= a0;Tributario, = art=C3=ADculos 93; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80= =9CD=E2=80=9D. 228 Esto es, cualquier l= ocal, establecimiento comercial o industrial, oficinas de dep=C3=B3sitos, c= ontenedores, cajas registradoras y medios de transporte. GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 93; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3= =ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD=E2=80=9D. 229 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">GU= ATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 93. <= /p>230 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358 =E2=80=9CD= =E2=80=9D. 231 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, art=C3=ADculo 90. 232 Ver se= cci=C3=B3n 2.1. 233 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.= 2. 234 = WEFFE (2010), p= p. 489-492; WEFFE (2018), pp. 173-180; MEDINA CALVO (2002), p. 42; y =C3=81= LVAREZ ECHAG=C3=9CE, Juan Manuel (2006): =E2=80=9CEl derecho a la no autoi= ncriminaci=C3=B3n y su aplicaci=C3=B3n en el =C3=A1mbito del Dere= cho 59 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;= base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAA= AAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALHDAkZwhSyMYG4mSD4jrYIWAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAXzimA5u4qqc6pyNs763u6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD8= 2AL2DwICKhLI6AAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D""= style=3D"position:absolute" />a no autoinculparse </span= >(<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">nemo tenet= ur se ipsum accusare). En efecto, el ejercicio estatal del ius puniendi <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">debe <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>fundamentarse en la dignidad humana, com= o todo el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico,235 lo que l= imita las posibilidades jur=C3=ADdicas de actividad probatoria estatal, en tanto es= te debe tratar al ciudadano con igual consideraci=C3=B3n y respeto.236 En consecuencia, la prueba de = cargo de la comisi=C3=B3n de un determinado il=C3=ADcito =E2=80=93como un delito, mucho menos u= na infracci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 no puede ser el resultado de la coac= ci=C3=B3n o el apremio; no es otro el efecto que tiene la tipificaci=C3=B3n de la= resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria como infracci=C3=B3n </sp= an>y <= /span>como de= lito, al obligar al ciudadano, a trav=C3=A9s de la sanci=C3=B3n, a aportar las que =E2=80=93eventualmente<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 = podr=C3=ADan ser las pruebas de su culpabilidad. Ello no es </spa= n> = justificable con base en el deber de colaboraci=C3=B3n con la Adm= inistraci=C3=B3n Tributaria: adem=C3=A1s de negar la = ;dignidad, una medida tal contr= adice el car=C3=A1cter necesario y proporcional <s= pan class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">stricto sensu de toda forma de intervenci=C3=B3n sancionadora.237 </span= >3.1.3. Presunciones y Derecho= Sancionador Tributario. Sus l=C3=ADmites. </sp= an>La presunci= =C3=B3n es una regla que =E2=80=93estructuralmente=E2=80=93 <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">sintetiza un proceso deductivo, mediante el cual &= #xa0;se infiere =E2=80=93<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">d=C3=A1ndose por= probado=E2=80=93 un hecho desconocido a partir de un hecho conocido, que <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">normalmente lo acompa= =C3=B1a. En Derecho, una presunci=C3=B3n se compone =E2=80= =93as= =C3=AD= =E2=80=93=C2=BA de varios requisitos = 0;m=C3=ADnimos: (i) los = hechos conocidos, sobre los que se tiene certeza en raz=C3=B3n de su = plena prueba; (ii) los hechos desconocidos, que constituyen objeto de la= investigaci=C3=B3n y cuya certeza, en raz=C3=B3n de la falta de pruebas </= span> de su real= izaci=C3=B3n, se desconoce; y (iii) el juicio o factor l=C3=B3gico de pr= obabilidad o normalidad, que vincula = 0;probab= il=C3=ADsticamente a los primeros con los segundos, de forma que si los hec= hos conocidos ocurren, normalmente los hechos desconocidos tambi=C3=A9n habr=C3=A1= n ocurrido.238 El uso de presunciones en el Derecho Sancionador es naturalmente l= imitado, y encuentra mayores cauces en el Derecho Procesal Penal. Probablemente, el= m=C3=A1s importante de todos es el de la presunci=C3=B3n = d= e inocencia,239 regla que permite deducir = iuris tantum la inocencia del acusado en = raz=C3=B3n de la dignidad que le es inherente como persona humana, y que determina = =E2=80= =93con base en la buena fe=E2=80=93 la suposici=C3=B3n de que este habr=C3=A1 = dirigido su =C2=ABplan racional de vida=C2=BB hacia la realizaci=C3=B3n del= Derecho, dentro del =C3=A1mbito de actuaci=C3=B3n permitido por el ordenamiento.</= span>240 Otro caso es el de la llamada presunci=C3=B3n d= e voluntariedad de la conducta constitutiva del acto antijur= =C3=ADdico, necesaria voluntariedad de la conducta <= /span>t=C3=ADpi= ca.241 Otros casos son, por ejemplo, aquel que fundamenta la inspecci=C3= =B3n y registro judicial de lugares, cosas o personas en la sospecha de que en ello= s se encuentran vestigios del delito o se oculta </s= pan>Sancionador Tribut= ario. (La posibilidad de utilizar pruebas obtenidas en un proceso de verifi= caci=C3=B3n como fundamento de sanciones penales)=E2=80=9D, Cr=C3=B3nica Tributaria No. 118 (Madrid, Instituto de Estudios= Fiscales), pp. 13-14. Disponible en: https://www.economistas.es/conteni= do/REAF/gestor/01-Alvarez.pdf. 235 Ver = Secci=C3=B3n 2. 236 DWORKIN (2002), pp.= 388-389 237 Ver Secciones 2.2.2. y 2= .2.3. 238 WEFFE (2018), pp. 176-177. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">239 GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3= =ADtica, art=C3=ADculo 14; GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=AD= culo 14. 240 WEFFE (2018), p. 176. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">241 WEFFE (2018), pp. 197-198; = y VOGEL, Joachim (1994): =E2=80=9CLos L=C3=ADmites Constitucionales a las P= resunciones del Derecho Penal Econ=C3=B3mico Alem=C3=A1n=E2=80= =9D, en ARROYO ZAPATERO, Luis y TIEDEMANN, Klaus (Edit.), = Estudios de Derecho penal econ=C3=B3mico &= #xa0;(Cuenca,= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; letter-spacing:0.05pt">Universidad = ;de Castilla = -= La = Mancha), p. 46. Disponible en: http://www.cienciaspenales.net/files/2016/= 09/5limites-constitucionales-a-las-presunciones-del-derecho-penal- <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> economi= co-aleman.pdf. 60 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJREFUeJzt0LENwlAUwECjpEOskB2zShZj= GjoKhqB4fHE3geUCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAA/sttOmARW3XPL773rl7TEQCsbZ8OWMRRndVjOoTlPatrOgIAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+wQcADAQDGkpAXQAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D= " width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></spa= n>el imputado,242 el del anticipo de pr= ueba cuando por alguna raz=C3=B3n se temiere que sea imposible <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> practicar la prueba testimonial en la audiencia de juicio,243 <= /span>y el peligro de fuga que fundamenta el &= #xa0;decreto de prisi=C3=B3n = preventiva.244 En el Derecho Sancionador, la presunci=C3=B3n iuris et de iure = de inimputabilidad en caso de minoridad245 </spa= n>es de uso ampliamente difundido: no es imputab= le bajo ninguna circunstancia el menor de edad246. Tambi=C3=A9n se establecen = bajo presunciones la peligrosidad =E2=80=93o mejor dicho, la falta de ella=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">que se deduce de la naturaleza del delito cometido, sus m=C3=B3viles y circ= unstancias a los efectos de la suspensi=C3=B3n condicional de la pena y del perd=C3= =B3n judicial,247 y el standard de conciencia del car= =C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico de la conducta =E2=80=93y por esa v=C3=ADa, de uno de los elemento= s de la culpabilidad=E2=80=93248 en los delitos de fabricaci=C3=B3n o tenencia de materiales explosivos<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">249= y enc= ubrimiento impropio,250 as=C3=AD como en el caso de la receptaci=C3=B3n = = =E2=80=93aprov= echamiento de cosas provenientes de delito=E2=80=93 respecto del derecho de propiedad a= legadamente detentado por el ve= ndedor.251 Sin embargo, el uso de presunciones en el Derech= o Sancionador supone interferencias con varios </spa= n>principios fu= ndamentales.252 El uso de inversiones de la carga de la prueba afecta a = la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia= , de manera que tales inversiones equivalen al uso de presunciones de culp= abilidad. En t=C3=A9rminos generales, estas suponen la prueba de la culpabilidad a partir= de la comprobaci=C3=B3n de meras circunstancias de hecho que, por s=C3=AD solas, n= o implican la prueba de la conexi=C3=B3n entre el autor y el acto <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>antijur=C3=ADdico =E2=80=93nexo psicol=C3=B3gi= co entre el autor y su hecho, que compone el llamado =E2=80=9Ctipo subjetiv= o=E2=80=9D y <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">se encuentra en la= tipicidad=E2=80=93, o bien, omiten cons= iderar las circunstancias concomitantes que puedan afectar: (i) la conciencia y la libertad, sean del acto= antijur=C3=ADdico realizado =E2=80=93imputabilidad=E2=80=93 o de su ilicitud =E2=80=93conciencia de la ilicitud del acto antijur=C3= =ADdico=E2=80=93, o bien, (ii) la =C2=ABcapacidad de elegir=C2=BB entre actuar seg=C3= =BAn &= #xa0;e= l derecho de actuar en contra de =C3=A9l, esto es, la normalidad volitiva, = todas elementos de la culpabilidad.253 De ese modo, las presunciones de culpabilidad no= son sino muestra de un importante retraso para el Derecho Sancionador.254 </span= >Estas posibles zonas de intersecci=C3= =B3n entre las presunciones y el Derecho Sancionador justifican la <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>formulaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Tribut= ario, de acuerdo con la cual las presunciones establecidas sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >infracciones y sa= nciones son siempre iuris tantum.255 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Si bien ello proc= ura minimizar la posible 242 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= rocesal Penal, art=C3=ADculo 187. 243 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">G= UATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art=C3=ADculos 317 y 348. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;244 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Procesal Penal, art= =C3=ADculos 259 y 261. 245 Vid. VOGEL = (1994), p. 44. 246 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Penal, art=C3=ADculo 23.1. 247 GUATE= MALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 72.2 y 83.3. </span= >248 Sin embargo, VOGEL pone de manifiesto la discusi=C3=B3n doctrinal= respecto de la constitucionalidad de figuras de este tipo, = ;sobre la base = de considerar a estas construcciones como aut=C3=A9nticas presunciones de c= ulpabilidad. Para ello, Vogel pone como ejemplo el caso =E2=80=93precisamente=E2=80=93 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >de la receptaci=C3=B3n. VOGEL (1994), p. 50. En el mismo sentido, WEFFE (2= 018), pp. 177-180. 249 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 287. 250 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">G= UATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, Art=C3=ADculo 475.2. </= p>251 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, Art=C3=ADculo 485.5. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > 252 <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Con acierto, VOGEL identifica que el uso de presunciones afe= ctan a los principios de reserva de ley, b=C3=BAsqueda de la = 0;verdad materi= al, necesidad de convicci=C3=B3n judicial, in dubio pro reo y nemo tenetur. VOGEL (1994), pp. 48, 52. Ver tambi=C3=A9n </span= > secci= =C3=B3n 3.1.2. 253 WEFFE (2018), p. 177= . = 254 VOGEL (1994), p. 52. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;255 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, Art=C3=ADcul= o 72. 61 </spa= n><img src=3D"data:image/pn= g;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiA= AAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABgk2s6sMRTfdU9HWG9v3qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= MOLqUCAkIWonEAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" sty= le=3D"position:absolute" />inconstitucionalidad de estas presunciones, el objetiv= o se logra solo parcialmente. Como la exposici=C3=B3n previa lo evidencia, es obvio que el uso de presun= ciones irrefutables para establecer elementos del tipo subjetivo o la conciencia = de la ilicitud de la conducta punible viola flagrantemente las garant=C3=AD= as de reserva legal y culpabilidad. Sin embargo, este no es = un problema que se resuelva con el uso de </p= >presunciones rela= tivas. El ataque a los principios en comentarios a trav=C3=A9s de las presu= nciones, ahora iuris tantum, se traslada, desde el =C3=A1mbito del Derecho mater= ial al procedimental: la presunci=C3=B3n de inocencia, trasladando la carga de la p= rueba al imputado y no a la acusaci=C3=B3n, como es lo correcto, <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">especialmente al obligar al ciudadano a proveer la prueba que pudiera = ser utilizada eventualmente en su contra para poder desvir= tuar la presunci=C3=B3n, instrumentada en el contexto del deber de informac= i=C3=B3n a la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, vulnerando as=C3=AD el nemo tenetur, o prohibici=C3=B3n de autoinculpaci=C3=B3n.256 <= /span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">3.1.4. </spa= n> = Con= currencia de il=C3=ADcitos tributarios. Concurso y reincidencia. <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = Es perfectame= nte posible que una misma persona cometa m=C3=A1s de un il=C3=ADcito tribut= ario, sea con uno257 o con varios actos. Es igualmente posi= ble que =E2=80=93ante algunos o todos est= os hechos=E2=80=93 el ius puniendi </spa= n>haya </span= > </span= >sido ejercido = previamente, y a pesar de ello el infractor insiste en lesionar bienes jur= =C3=ADdicos a trav=C3=A9s de conductas tipificadas legalment= e. En ese escenario, la proporcionalidad258 demanda del ordenamiento </= span> </= span>una respuesta adecuada, que casti= gue los varios hechos cometidos en relaci=C3=B3n con el (mayor) grado de </= span> </= span>da=C3=B1o al bien jur=C3=ADdico q= ue ellos representan en conjunto, ante la inhabilidad de la conminaci=C3=B3= n = 0;sancionadora previa para indu= cir al infractor al cumplimiento de la ley.259 El Derecho Sancionador <= /span> <= /span>regula es= tas situaciones a trav=C3=A9s de los distintos supuestos de concurrencia d= e il=C3=ADcitos tributarios: concurso y reincidencia. = 3.1.4.1. Concurso de il=C3=ADci= tos tributarios En cualquiera de sus formas, el concurs= o de il=C3=ADcitos supone la lesi=C3=B3n m=C3=BAltiple a bienes jur=C3=ADdi= cos, independientemente de si se trata de las varias lesione= s al mismo o a distintos bienes jur=C3=ADdicos. Cuando &= #xa0;e= se da=C3=B1o m=C3=BAltiple se produce a trav=C3=A9s de una =C3=BAnica condu= cta t=C3=ADpica, estamos en presencia del il=C3=ADcito &= #xa0;p= luriofensivo, objeto material del llamado concurso ideal de il=C3=ADcitos<= /span>: la vi= olaci=C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur=C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ata= que a varios bienes jur=C3=ADdicos=E2=80=93 por un mismo comportamiento.260 </= span>Por su p= arte, cuando <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ese menoscabo se p= roduce a trav=C3=A9s de varias conductas t=C3=ADpicas, f=C3=ADsicamente y c= ausalmente diferenciables, nos = hallamos frente a un caso del llamado concurso real de infracciones= : la violaci= =C3=B3n de m=C3=BAltiples normas jur=C3=ADdicas =E2=80=93y el ataque a varios bienes jur=C3=AD= dicos= =E2=80=93 a trav=C3=A9s de varios comportamientos.261 = Sobre la base de = la proporcionalidad, los sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos reaccionan de tres grandes= modos frente a todas las formas de concurrencia de infracc= iones: de mayor a menor, en raz=C3=B3n de su intensidad en el castigo de los hechos= subsecuentes, tenemos los sistemas de acumulaci=C3=B3n material, acumulaci= =C3=B3n 256 Ver nota al pie 165, y secci=C3=B3n 3.1.2. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt= ; letter-spacing:-0.05pt">257 A trav=C3=A9s de la conducta plurio= fensiva. Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 258 Ver = secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 259 WEFFE (2010), pp.= 367-368. 260 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3, y = WEFFE (2010), p. 369-370. 261 WEFFE (2= 010), pp. 372-373. 62 <img src=3D"= data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCS= VQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcE= Ie1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808"= alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />jur=C3=ADdica o absorci=C3=B3n.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 262 En= el caso del concurso, el sistema elegido por el legislador penal guatemalt= eco &#= xa0;es una mixtura: acumulaci= =C3=B3n material para el concurso real,263 y acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3= =ADdica para el concurso ideal.= 264 Paralelamente, el legislador tributario guate= malteco opt=C3=B3 por la acumulaci=C3=B3n material para todos <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> </spa= n>los casos: de acuerdo con el C=C3= =B3digo Tributario, =E2=80=9Ccuando un hecho constituya m=C3=A1s de una in= fracci=C3=B3n se sancionar=C3=A1 cada una de ellas= =E2=80=9D.265 En este sentido, si bien la acumulaci=C3=B3= n material es la forma m=C3=A1s antigua de respuesta al problema de = <s= pan class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">la concurrencia de infracciones, la tendencia actual del Derecho Sa= ncionador es la opuesta, tal como lo evidencia el propio C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guate= mala.266 Prima facie, la acumulaci=C3=B3n material es sospechosa </span= > </span= >de desproporcionada por excesiva, y e= n consecuencia por innecesaria.267 Adem=C3=A1s de= castigar, la sanci=C3=B3n es un mecanismo de resocializaci=C3=B3n, que siempre tie= ne como norte la preservaci=C3=B3n de la dignidad humana, en los t=C3=A9rminos trat= ados previamente.268 Ello justifica el car=C3=A1c= ter subsidiario de la intervenci=C3=B3n = s= ancionadora, y la adopci=C3=B3n general de l=C3=ADmites generales de punici= =C3=B3n que, al utilizar el sistema de = acumulaci=C3=B3n = material, preserven la proporcionalidad de la intervenci=C3=B3n punitiva.</= span>269 Considerando que la legislaci=C3=B3n penal es fondo general supletorio para la= regulaci=C3=B3n del Derecho Tributario Sancionador = en todo aquello que el C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario no ha previsto expresamente,270 respetuosamente <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>consideramos que los l=C3=ADmites de ag= ravaci=C3=B3n de sanciones previstos para el concurso real de delitos son <= /span> <= /span>totalmente trasladables a la reg= ulaci=C3=B3n infraccional del C=C3=B3digo Tributario, por lo que constituye= n = 0;barrer= as infranqueables a la imposici=C3=B3n de sanciones por la Administraci=C3= =B3n Tributaria. Igualmente, es llamativo el hecho de que l= a regulaci=C3=B3n tributaria resuelva el concurso ideal de infracciones a t= rav=C3=A9s del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n material, mientra= s que la regulaci=C3=B3n penal resuelve el mismo problema a trav=C3=A9s del empleo = del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica. Ello sugiere una mayor grave= dad de las infracciones tributarias frente a los delitos, tributarios o no, tipific= ados en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, lo que prima = = facie = es contrario a la proporcionalidad stricto sensu</s= pan>271 del Derecho Sancionador. 3.1.4.2. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">Reinciden= cia. Por su parte, se habl= ar=C3=A1 de reincidencia =E2=80=93en lugar de concurso real=E2=80=93 cuando entre uno <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o varios= =E2=80=93 </s= pan>de esos <= /span> <= /span>hechos y = los dem=C3=A1s existe una decisi=C3=B3n condenatoria firme, que imponga al = autor de estos il=C3=ADcitos una sanci=C3=B3n por las conductas sancionables cometi= das con antelaci=C3=B3n a la reiteraci=C3=B3n sancionable, siempre <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>que la nueva acci=C3=B3n punible sea co= metida dentro de un plazo m=C3=A1ximo =E2=80=93fijado legalmente=E2=80=93 desde que 262 = Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 263 GUA= TEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 69. 264 = GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 70. <= /span>265 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 73.= = 266 </= span>GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculos 69 y 70. En el caso del concurso real, la acu= mulaci=C3=B3n de penas no podr=C3=A1 exceder del triple de la de mayor dur= aci=C3=B3n, y si todas tuvieren igual duraci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n exceder= del triple de la pena. En todo caso, la acumulaci=C3=B3n no puede exceder= de 50 a=C3=B1os de privaci=C3=B3n de libertad, o de Q 200.000 de penas pec= uniarias. Para el concurso ideal, el sistema elegido es el de la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica: se aplicar=C3=A1 la sanci= =C3=B3n m=C3=A1s grave, aumentada en una tercera parte. </= span>267 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2.2. </span= > 268 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2= . 269 <= /span>Vid. ESPA=C3=91A= , Fiscal=C3=ADa General del Estado, Circular 1-2014 sobre = la acumulaci=C3=B3n de penas, p. 2. Disponible en: = 0;https://www.f= iscal.es/fiscal/PA_WebApp_SGNTJ_NFIS/descarga/CIRCULAR_1_2014_LA_ACUMULACIO= N_DE _CONDENAS.pdf?idFile=3D6bb5d6df-a6b0-45f6-9e84-ece31e6f98df. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 270 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 9. 271 Ver secc= i=C3=B3n 2.2.3. 63 <s= pan class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; = letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMo= CAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+dJREFUeJz= tzjERAgEQALFlBopXgCzEYoUaB99SI+O4IVGQAgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+DOX6cAS9+pRHdMR1ntXz+kEALtdpwNLfKpXdZuOsN45HQA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAADgR3wBOu8EwnKMgfY= AAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positio= n:absolute" />el acto sancionador haya adquirido firmeza.272 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&#= xa0;En G= uatemala la reincidencia est=C3=A1 regulada sectorialmente. En el Derecho T= ributario Sancionador, la reincidencia se verifica cuando en= tre las distintas infracciones atribuibles al mismo autor existe una </span= > <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">resoluci=C3=B3n de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, debidamente = notificada, dentro del plazo de cuatro a=C3=B1os, </= span>lapso que =E2=80=93suponemos=E2=80=93 <spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">se cuenta desde el d=C3=ADa h=C3=A1bil siguiente a su pr=C3=A1ctica, = que es el momento en el que la notificaci=C3=B3n surte sus efectos, dotando de efic= acia al acto administrativo.273 La f=C3=B3rmula d= e agrava= ci=C3=B3n de penas producto de la reincidencia en sede tributaria es totalm= ente objetiva: en el caso de </spa= n>sanciones pec= uniarias, un incremento del 50% de la multa como regla general, lo que pued= e ampliarse =E2=80=93en el caso que la multa est=C3=A9 determinada con base en un porcent= aje del tributo omitido=E2=80=93 hasta un 1= 00% de dicho tributo. En el caso de la comisi=C3=B3n de las =C2=ABinfraccio= nes espec=C3=ADficas=C2=BB asociadas a la producci=C3=B3n y conservaci=C3=B3n de medios de prueba de la re= alizaci=C3=B3n del hecho imponible,274 la reincidencia supone la disoluci=C3=B3n, y la cancelaci=C3=B3n= de la inscripci=C3=B3n mercantil y de la patente de comercio de la persona jur=C3= =ADdica.275 Como puede verse, el concepto tributario de rei= ncidencia no exige la firmeza del = acto de determinaci=C3=B3n de las sanciones previas, ni tampoco abre la posibilidad= de que ese acto sea impugnado ante la jurisdicci=C3=B3n tributaria. Eso genera, por supuesto, una serie= de problemas. En primer lugar, la agravaci=C3=B3n de sanci=C3=B3n por reincidencia, en los casos en los q= ue el acto que impone la sanci=C3=B3n no es res iudicata, viola la presun= ci=C3=B3n de inocencia:276 a trav=C3=A9s de la sanci=C3=B3n impuesta al = segundo il=C3=ADcito se castigar=C3=A1 al sujeto por la comisi=C3=B3n del primero, sin que previamente s= e haya determinado su culpabilidad mediante una decisi=C3=B3n definitivamente firme. Este supuesto se maxi= miza en el caso de que la nueva infracci=C3=B3n se cometa mientras se est=C3=A1 controlando judicialmente = la validez del acto administrativo que ha impuesto la primera sanci=C3=B3n. En propiedad, la norma aplic= able a estos supuestos es la del concurso, y no la de la reincidencia: la firmeza del acto es un requisito= esencial a la diferenciaci=C3=B3n de ambas figuras. </sp= an> Lo contrario= supone el riesgo cierto de vulneraci=C3=B3n, sea de la proporcionalidad o = de la prohibici=C3=B3n del bis in =C3=ADdem.277 </p= >Adicionalmente, e= s posible identificar un r=C3=A9gimen diferenciado de agravaci=C3=B3n de sa= nciones en el caso de reincidencia. Para la aplicaci=C3=B3n = de sanciones pecuniarias, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario distingue en funci=C3= =B3n de la t=C3=A9cnica de tipificaci=C3=B3n de la pena, lo = que parece configurar un trato desproporcionado, por = ;discriminatorio. La situaci=C3= =B3n se agrava por la objetivaci=C3=B3n de la medida de agravaci=C3=B3n de pena = en caso = de reincidencia, que no permite al =C3=B3rgano encargado de la aplicaci=C3= =B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n ponderar las distintas alternativas = de castigo, en funci=C3=B3n de la finalidad resocializadora y de la subsidi= ariedad de la intervenci=C3=B3n punitiva exigidas por la proporcionalidad.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 278 Desde el punto de vista del Derecho Penal stricto sensu<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">, la reinciden= cia se utiliza tambi=C3=A9n como circunstancia agravante de la responsabilidad penal en sentido estricto.<= /span>279 Ella sirve como par=C3=A1metro 272 WEFFE (2010), = p. 371-372. 273 En el caso de la notifi= caci=C3=B3n personal. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 130= y 8.1.c). 274 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, art=C3=ADculo 85. 275 En nuestra opini=C3=B3n, esta =C3=BAltima disposici=C3=B3n es in= constitucional, por las razones que desarrollaremos en esta misma <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > secci=C3= =B3n al comentar la regulaci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal respecto de la re= incidencia. 276 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">277 Ver secciones= 2.2. y 2.3. 278 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 279 GUATEMALA, = C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 27.23. 64 <= span class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt;= letter-spacing:0.05pt"> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAM= oCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9RJREFUeJ= ztzkENgEAQALFBATYQiQCM4eveYGBzSaugBQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HdMBzZ= xVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACAjwX+AgICYbAd3wAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" = width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= de aplicaci= =C3=B3n objetiva de la pena acceso= ria de disoluci=C3=B3n, en el caso de la responsabilidad = penal de personas jur=C3=ADdicas, tanto en general280 c= omo para determinados delitos,281 o de la duplica= ci=C3=B3n de las penas en el caso de la conducci=C3=B3n de v= eh=C3=ADculos de motor bajo los efectos de sustancias, o de manera temerari= a o imprudente que ponga en riesgo a los dem=C3=A1s particip= antes en el tr=C3=A1fico.282 En nuestra materia, la reincidencia es determinativa de la p=C3=A9rdida = definitiva de la patente de comercio en el caso de la comisi=C3=B3n del delito de defraudaci=C3=B3n tributaria, a trav=C3=A9s de la altera= ci=C3=B3n o destrucci=C3=B3n de los mecanismos </spa= n>de control fi= scal, colocados en m=C3=A1quinas registradoras o timbradoras, sellos fiscal= es y similares,283 de apropiaci=C3=B3n indebida de tributos284 y de resistencia a la acci=C3= =B3n fiscalizadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria.285 = ;Es nece= sario reiterar aqu=C3=AD, respetuosamente, las objeciones previas respecto = de la razonabilidad de la soluci=C3=B3n legal al respecto, t= anto en sede tributaria como penal stricto sensu. La </s= pan>objetivaci=C3=B3n de la reincidencia, a trav=C3=A9s del empleo de penas fijas para agrava= r la responsabilidad del infractor, no permite una adecuada individualizaci=C3=B3n = de la pena en raz=C3=B3n de las circunstancias f=C3=A1cticas y jur=C3=ADdic= as que rodean la comisi=C3=B3n del hecho, lo que atenta cont= ra la proporcionalidad, bajo las formas de idoneidad y &= #xa0;necesidad. Adem=C3=A1s, = la cancelaci=C3=B3n de la patente de comercio =E2=80=93o peor a=C3=BAn, la disoluci=C3= =B3n= =E2=80=93 es una respuesta maximalista <= /span>del Der= echo Sancionador guatemalteco a los supuestos de concurrencia de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >il=C3=ADcitos, que respetuosamente consi= deramos desproporcionada: son formas =E2=80=93directa en un caso, indirecta en el otro=E2=80=93 de muert= e civil, que atentan gravemente contra la libertad econ=C3=B3mica de los so= cios de la persona jur=C3=ADdica cuya personalidad haya sido= disuelta, hayan sido part=C3=ADcipes o no de los delitos = cuya concurrencia config= ura la reincidencia.286 3.1.4.3. Delito continuado &#= xa0;Si bien el C=C3=B3digo Trib= utario nada dice al respecto, el C=C3=B3digo Penal287 <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">regula los casos del llamado concurso continuado de il=C3=ADcitos. En estos c= asos, una pluralidad de conductas f=C3=ADsicamente diferenciables es </span= > </span= >susceptible de= unidad (i) de imputaci=C3=B3n, en tanto son realizadas o dominadas288 por la misma persona; (ii) de lesi=C3=B3n, al perseguir la vulneraci=C3=B3n del mis= mo bien jur=C3=ADdico;289 y (ii) de designio, en tanto 280 </s= pan>De m=C3=A1s que dudosa constitucionalidad, en tanto supone una forma= de muerte civil que lesiona gravemente la libertad = econ=C3=B3mica de los = socios. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 38. </= span>281 Como por ejemplo la explotaci=C3=B3n ilegal de recurs= os naturales. GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 346. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;282 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 157= . = 283 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculo 358.B. 284 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358.C. 285 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 358.D. Es importante destacar = ac=C3=A1 que, en el supuesto del concurso aparente <= /p>de il=C3=ADcitos </span= >=E2=80=93consunci=C3=B3n=E2= =80=93 entre los dos tipos de resistencia a la acci=C3=B3n fiscal= izadora de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria, el </p= >contenido en el C=C3=B3d= igo Penal y el regulado en el art=C3=ADculo 286 <= /span>A este respecto, es digno de menci=C3=B3n el caso de la <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">Panader=C3=ADa Berna, ubicada en el Paseo de la Sexta Aven= ida, Zona 1, Casco Hist=C3=B3rico de la Ciudad de Guatemala, a la que </sp= an>curiosamente el cambio de nombre social salv=C3=B3 d= e la clausura definitiva por falta de emisi=C3=B3n de facturas, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size= :10pt">ex art=C3=ADculo 85.1 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario. Ver PREN= SA LIBRE, Cierre de Panader=C3=ADa Berna ser=C3=A1 = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">temporal, no definitivo, (13/3/2017). Disponible en: http= s://www.prensalibre.com/economia/panaderia-berna-acepta- </= span>cerrar-en-definit= iva/. 287 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal,= art=C3=ADculo 71. 288 Seg=C3=BAn R</sp= an>OXIN, =E2=80=9CPosee el dominio del hecho y= es autor quien en la realizaci=C3=B3n del delito aparece como figura clave= , como personaje central por su influencia determinante o de= cisiva en el acontecimiento=E2=80=9D. ROXI= N (1997), Tomo II, p. 75. 289 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal= , art=C3=ADculo 71.2. 65 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:63"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9VJREFUeJztzkENgEAQALHBAkZ= whSyMYO6+JAjYXNIqaAEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA8HNMBzZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4GsB+/8CAuRNOfgAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" heigh= t=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />constituyen etapas en la realizaci=C3=B3n del plan delictual del= autor.290 Dicho en otras palabras, en el delito continuado se atribuye a varias conductas humanas el s= ignificado jur=C3=ADdico de acci=C3=B3n =C3=BAnica, en tanto constituyen partes de = la realizaci=C3=B3n final de la voluntad del agente, pues aun cuando f=C3= =ADsicamente estas acciones puedan considerarse como separadas, en tanto constituye= n modificaciones aisladas o individualizadas del mundo exterior, no es posible cons= iderarlas jur=C3=ADdicamente como unidades aisladas, = ;sino como partes de un todo, e= n tanto forman parte de la misma acci=C3=B3n final.291 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">En Guatemala, el = = delito continuado se castiga so= bre la base del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica, con la pena apli= cable al delito aumentada en una tercera parte. = En este sentido, es nuestra opini=C3=B3n= que el uso del sistema de acumulaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica para castigar el = = concurso continuado es plenamen= te trasladable al Derecho Tributario Sancionador.292 Dada su <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = naturaleza sancionadora,293 </s= pan>la regla sobre delito continuado es de aplicaci=C3=B3n suplet= oria a las infracciones tributarias por imperio del propio C=C3=B3digo Penal,</span= >294 sin que la redacci=C3=B3n del C=C3=B3digo Tributario respecto de la concurrencia d= e infracciones tributarias pueda interpretarse como = contradicci=C3=B3n impl=C3=ADci= ta con la regla penal y, en consecuencia, como norma de aplicaci=C3=B3n esp= ecial a = estos casos. Una vez m=C3=A1s, los principios de proporcionalidad y de igua= ldad soportan la conclusi=C3=B3n expuesta, toda vez que lo c= ontrario =E2=80=93el empleo de la acumulaci=C3=B3n material para el castigo de la </spa= n> </spa= n>infracci=C3=B3n continuada en materi= a tributaria sancionadora=E2=80=93 implicar=C3=ADa la aplicaci=C3=B3n de sanciones </sp= an> </sp= an>desproporcionadas <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">a la entidad de los bienes jur=C3=ADdicos protegidos en el Derecho T= ributario Sancionador, y desiguales frente a la misma lesi=C3=B3n= del bien jur=C3=ADdico causada de un modo distinto. 3.1.5. Responsabilidad tributaria sancionador= a. Entre otras posibles acepciones del t=C3=A9rmino,</s= pan>295 la responsabilidad denota el v=C3=ADnculo entre = la acci=C3=B3n cuya consecuencia es jur=C3=ADdicamente reg= ulada y la persona que deba sufrir, por tal circunstancia, una <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> modificaci=C3=B3n en su status jur=C3=ADdico.296 En materia sancionadora, como consecuencia del principio de <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> culpabilidad, la responsabilidad es eminentemente personal: el binomio c= orrelativo =C2=ABacto antijur=C3=ADdico- = sanci=C3=B3n=C2= =BB solo puede establecerse respecto del autor del acto tipificado como il= =C3=ADcito. De tal modo, la sanci=C3=B3n es necesariamente c= onsecuencia de la relaci=C3=B3n entre el acto antijur=C3=ADdico y su autor = culpable: =C3=BAnicamente la persona que dirige consciente y= libremente su conducta a la realizaci=C3=B3n del acto il=C3=ADcito = <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">es la que puede, l=C3=B3gicamente, ser objeto del reproche que es e= sencial al concepto de culpabilidad y, en </p= >consecuencia, ser responsable.297 290 GUATEMALA, C=C3= =B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 71.1. 291 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= WEFFE (2010), pp. 401-402. 292 Vid. WEF= FE (2010), p. 403. 293 WEFFE (2010), pp= . 145-155; y WEFFE (2018), pp. 235-246. 294 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 9. </span= >295 Ver nota al pie 36. 296 W= effe; La responsabilidad= =E2=80=A6 p. 569. 297 </sp= an>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4, y WEFFE (2018), p. 275. = = 66 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhE= UgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggA= AB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII= =3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></= span>3.1= .5.1. Regla general. = Personalidad. Autor=C3=ADa lato sensu y formas de participaci=C3=B3n en i= l=C3=ADcitos tributarios. La personalidad es la regla= general que acoge el C=C3=B3digo Tributario para la atribuci=C3=B3n de res= ponsabilidad sancionadora tributaria.298 <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">As=C3=AD, la responsabilidad personal por infracciones tributarias e= n Guatemala se atribuye a los autores, quienes son definidos legalmente en sentido = ampl=C3=ADsimo,299 de una manera que <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> incluye al <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">inductor y al auxiliador bajo un concepto unitar= io de autor=C3=ADa.300 As=C3=AD, adem=C3=A1s del autor stricto <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> <= /span>sensu, sujeto con <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">dominio de= l hecho o en rol de garante </span= >por su participaci=C3=B3n directa en la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la </s= pan> conducta il=C3=ADcita,301 el C=C3=B3d= igo Tributario equipara el r=C3=A9gimen de los autores: (i) a los instigado= res, qui= enes inducen directamente al autor a cometer la infracci=C3=B3n;<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">30= 2 y (iii) a los cooperadores necesarios, = que son los que, sin ser= autores en sentido estricto, colaboran decisivamente en la ejecuci=C3=B3n = de la = conducta sancionable, al= punto que sin su participaci=C3=B3n el il=C3=ADcito no se habr=C3=ADa come= tido.303 La regulaci=C3=B3n es similar a la contenida en el C=C3=B3digo Penal de G= uatemala,304 que tambi=C3=A9n define a todas estas figuras como autores, incluyendo a quienes <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93</span= >previo acuer= do para la realizaci=C3=B3n del delito=E2=80=93 presencian su ejecuci=C3=B3n sin tomar parte activa en ella.</sp= an>305 Seg=C3=BAn la definici=C3=B3n legal, c=C3=B3mplic= es son: (i) el alentador, quien anime al autor en su decisi=C3=B3n de cometer el = delito sin llegar a instigarlo; (ii) el cooperador sub sequens,= quien mediante acuerdo previo promete ayuda para luego de cometido el il= =C3=ADcito; y (iii) el cooperador stricto sensu<span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">, que colabora con la comisi=C3=B3n del delito proporcionando informac= i=C3=B3n o medios para cometer el delito, o act=C3=BAan como intermediarios entre l= os part=C3=ADcipes para obtener su concurrencia en el delito.306 <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">Obviamente, ante el silencio de la norma tributaria, la regulaci=C3= =B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal respecto del alentador, el cooperador sub sequens </spa= n>y el cooperador stricto sensu <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">es tambi=C3=A9n= = ;aplicab= le a las infracciones tributarias. La equiparaci=C3=B3n de v= arias formas de participaci=C3=B3n a la autor=C3=ADa es una soluci=C3=B3n d= if=C3=ADcilmente conciliable con la proporcionalidad = strict= o sensu307 sobre la base de razones de pol=C3=ADtica criminal,<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3= 08 en tanto la medida = de la responsabil= idad del autor en sentido estricto es superior a la de los part=C3=ADcipes.= A este respecto, baste recordar que es el autor quien dirig= e directamente su conducta a da=C3=B1ar al bien jur=C3=ADdico, mientras </s= pan> que los par= t=C3=ADcipes, para serlo, requieren del autor para lograr el mismo objetivo= . A todo evento, como forma de = racionalizar la expansi=C3=B3n punitiva que introduce la regla, a=C3=BAn cu= ando la sanci=C3=B3n de instigadores &= #xa0;y cooperadores necesario= s se determine bajo los mismos par=C3=A1metros de la sanci=C3=B3n aplicable= al autor, 298 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art= =C3=ADculos 77 y 79. 299 GUATEMALA, C= =C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 79. 300 </sp= an>Ver, Modelo de C=C3=B3digo Tributario para Am=C3=A9rica Latina, art= =C3=ADculo 80. 301 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3di= go Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.1. 302 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.2. </= span>303 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 80.3= . = 304 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art= =C3=ADculos 36 y 37. Vid. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 119= , 127. 305 Con a= cierto, la doctrina guatemalteca ha denunciado la inconstitucionalidad de e= sta =C3=BAltima forma de participaci=C3=B3n, sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= la base de su incompatibilidad con los principios de reserva legal y culpab= ilidad, bajo la forma de personalidad. Sin embargo, = GONZ=C3=81LEZ= CAUHAP= =C3=89-CAZAUX sugiere = una matizaci=C3=B3n adecuada para resolver el problema: quienes est=C3=A9n = en esta situaci=C3=B3n ser=C3=A1n part=C3=ADcipes en la medida en la que = el part=C3=ADcipe tenga una posibilidad real de intervenir en la comisi=C3= =B3n del delito, al punto que su mera presencia pueda asegurar el resultad= o lesivo. GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 128- = 0;129. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 306 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 37. 307 Ver sec= ci=C3=B3n 2.2.3. 308 </spa= n>GONZ=C3=81LEZ CAUHAP=C3=89-CAZAUX (2003), pp. 127. </= span>67 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9RJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALHDAkZwhSyMYG4mSD4jrYIWAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAXzimA5u4qqc6pyNs763u6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAD82AL2DwICKhLI6AAAAABJRU= 5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:abs= olute" />para que pueda hablarse de participaci=C3=B3n es necesario que, conforme= con el principio de accesoriedad, h= aya una infracci=C3=B3n cometida por un autor, a quienes los part=C3=ADcipes co= mplementan en la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la infracci=C3=B3n. En resumen, sin autor no hay part=C3=ADcipes, por l= o que = =E2=80=93en ausencia de autor=E2=80=93 no es posible = exigir responsabilidad s= ancionadora a los supuestos part=C3=ADcipes. 3.1.5.2. La responsabilidad del asesor profesional. = =C2=BFAutor=C3=ADa o participaci=C3=B3n? Un caso particular es el de la resp= onsabilidad de los asesores profesionales en el Derecho Sancionador = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Tributario guat= emalteco. El C=C3=B3digo Tributario ordena a estos profesionales la emisi= =C3=B3n de sus <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">dict=C3=A1menes,= certificaciones u otras constancias similares vinculadas con la materia tr= ibutar= ia =E2=80=9Cde </sp= an>conformidad con las normas y= principios legales, cient=C3=ADficos o t=C3=A9cnicas aplicables<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">=E2=80=9D;309 esto es, observando las reglas t=C3=A9cnicas de su oficio como el standard </sp= an>de actuaci= =C3=B3n diligente para el ejercicio de sus funciones. En principio, ello supondr=C3=ADa que la actuaci= =C3=B3n del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico que, desapegada de estos <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = principios, sirva= de base para la comisi=C3=B3n de un il=C3=ADcito tributario generar=C3=ADa= para aquel responsabilidad, bien por participaci=C3=B3n en el il=C3=ADcito cometido por el su= jeto pasivo tributario, bajo la figura de la = cooperaci=C3=B3= n, sea esta necesaria o stricto sensu, o bien por autor=C3=ADa310 en determinados casos, dependiendo </sp= an> </sp= an>del rol jugado por el profesional o= t=C3=A9cnico dentro de la organizaci=C3=B3n empresarial, fundamentalmente = = como rep= resentante del contribuyente.311 A su vez, ese pareciera ser el sentido = que le atribuye el C=C3=B3digo = Tributario, cuando tipifica el incumplimiento doloso de sus obligaciones co= mo supuesto aut=C3=B3nomo de ge= neraci=C3=B3n de responsabilidad por il=C3=ADcitos tributarios.<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">312= <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">La redacci=C3=B3n de la norma, sin embargo, es m=C3=A1ximamente con= fusa. Si bien es claro que el C=C3=B3digo </p= >Tributario est=C3=A1 regulando =C3=BAnic= amente un supuesto de responsabilidad sancionadora y no tributaria,<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt"= >313 no resulta = claro determinar a cu=C3=A1les obligaciones se refiere como elemento materi= al del i= ncumplimiento: si las propias del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico vinculadas al = cumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias, independientemente de que estas se ha= yan cumplido o no, o a las obligaciones tributarias del tercero a quien el profesional o t=C3=A9cnico pres= ta servicios.314 El desconcierto se maximiza cuan= do, adic= ionalmente, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario prescribe que la declaraci=C3=B3n de = esta responsabilidad se har=C3=A1 siempre en sede penal, lo que pudiera leerse como una = remisi=C3=B3n a la tipificaci=C3=B3n de la estafa mediante informaciones contables,= cuyo n=C3=BAcleo rector es la tergiversaci=C3=B3n de la informaci=C3=B3n c= ontable con el =C3=A1nimo de defraudar al Estado.<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">= 315 Sin embargo, como es f=C3=A1cil constatar: (i) el =C3= =A1mbito de aplicaci=C3=B3n del 309 </spa= n>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 82. <= /span>310 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.1. </p= >311 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.3. 312 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 95. = 313 Al respecto, ver sentencia de la C= orte de Constitucionalidad de Guatemala de 8 de febrero de 1994, (Instituto= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">Guatemalteco de Contadores P=C3=BAblicos, en acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucio= nalidad parcial contra el art=C3=ADculo 42 del Acuerdo </= span>Gubernativo 624-9= 2, de Reglamento de la Ley de Impuesto sobre la Renta, Expediente 231-93), = p. 5. Disponible en: http://143.208.58.124/Sentencias/791746.231-93.pdf. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">314 Si bien, intuitivamente, la respuest= a pareciera ser la primera de estas opciones, siempre que ellas hayan deter= minado el incumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria principal. </spa= n> 315 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADc= ulo 271. As=C3=AD se tipifica como delito aut=C3=B3nomo la participaci=C3= =B3n del auditor, perito contador o experto en un esquema de defraudaci=C3= =B3n tributaria, en los casos en los que la informaci=C3=B3n sirve de base = para la comisi=C3=B3n de ese delito. En estos casos, la regla de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-siz= e:10pt">consunci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93<s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >falsa concurrencia de delitos=E2=80=93 demanda que el = tipo aplicable al profesional involucrado sea el del delito m=C3=A1s grave= , defraudaci=C3=B3n, del que =C3=A9l es =C3=BAnicamente part=C3=ADcipe, no = autor. De lo 68 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1l= LEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWOSaDizxVF91T0dY76/e6QQAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAABMOehACArKdAsIAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />tipo en cuesti=C3=B3n es m=C3=A1s limitado qu= e el de la declaraci=C3=B3n de responsabilidad contenida en el C=C3=B3digo = = Tributar= io, que subjetivamente no est=C3=A1 circunscrita =C3=BAnicamente a auditore= s, peritos contables o expertos y que, por lo general de su = enunciado, parece incluir tambi=C3=A9n a abogados que emiten dict=C3=A1menes </s= pan> </s= pan>profesionales para determinar la g= ravabilidad o no de un determinado enriquecimiento con el ISLR, o <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>bien la deducibil= idad de alguna partida de costo o de gasto para la determinaci=C3=B3n de la= renta neta gravable con este impuesto; y (ii) en el caso de este delito, las regla= s de autor=C3=ADa ya contenidas en el C=C3=B3digo Penal316 son suficientes para determinar el grado= de responsabilidad del profesional o t=C3=A9cnico, sin necesidad de remisi=C3=B3n alguna al C=C3=B3digo T= ributario, m=C3=A1xime cuando se tiene presente que la estafa <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">mediante informacione= s contables no es un delito tributario. As= =C3=AD las cosas, y =E2=80=93por supuesto=E2=80=93 s= alvo mejor opini=C3=B3n, pareciera que la =C3=BAnica forma de conciliar la = declarac= i=C3=B3n normativa con el resto del sistema sancionador guatemalteco, cuest= i=C3=B3n de suma <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">importancia para determinar la responsabilidad sancionadora de pro= fesionales y t=C3=A9cnicos en general a = efectos, no solo = del ISLR, sino de todo el sistema tributario, es considerar que la regla en= comentarios atribuye responsabilidad sancionadora, como part=C3=ADcipes<sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">, a todos aquellos profesionales o t=C3=A9cnicos que, dolosamente, hayan incumplido con sus obligaciones y que, como consecuenci= a de ello, se haya producido un delito tributario. Sin embar= go, teniendo en cuenta que ninguno de los delitos tributarios tipificados en el C= =C3=B3digo Penal prev=C3=A9 la inhabilitaci=C3=B3n para el ejercicio de pro= fesiones como pena accesoria,</= span>317 no parece haber justificaci=C3=B3n que explique= el porqu=C3=A9 de la separaci=C3=B3n de esta regla de las normas generales de auto= r=C3=ADa y participaci=C3=B3n en il=C3=ADcitos tributarios, tanto infraccio= nales como delictuales. En este= sentido, cualquier interpretaci=C3=B3n que a=C3=B1ada a la responsabilidad= determinada por <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">este art=C3=ADculo las sanciones aplicables a los autores <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-= spacing:normal">lato sensu, tal como han sido definidos en el C=C3=B3digo = = Tributario, vulnerar=C3=ADa sin m=C3= =A1s la prohibici=C3=B3n sustantiva del bis in =C3= =ADdem,318 al pretender el doble castigo del mismo hecho sin qu= e exista pluriofensividad que lo justifique. = 3.1.5.3. Excepciones. Responsab= ilidad sancionadora por el hecho de terceros. Adem=C3=A1s de la personalidad como regla general,= el C=C3=B3digo Tributario permite la consagraci=C3=B3n de =C2=ABexcepciones=C2=BB,= 319 que fundamentalmente reproducen el esquema de responsabilidad </span= >vicaria por el hech= o de terceros, propio de la responsabilidad civil.320 <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">A este respecto, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario distingue = contrari= o, se producir=C3=ADa un adelantamiento de la punibilidad de la defraudaci= =C3=B3n, incompatible con las garant=C3=ADas m=C3=ADnimas en = 0;el ejercicio = del poder punitivo en un Estado democr=C3=A1tico. </= p>316 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 36.1. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">= 317 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Penal, art=C3=ADculo 42. La pena accesoria de inhabilitaci=C3=B3n, sea ab= soluta o especial, por su naturaleza = ;exige que el e= ncargado de aplicarla sea el juez penal. 318 </sp= an>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.3. 319 GUATEMA= LA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 77. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:6.5pt">32= 0 Seg=C3=BAn el C=C3=B3digo Civil de Guatemala, e= stos son los casos de la responsabilidad: (i) del patrono por los accidente= s de trabajo (art=C3=ADculo 1.649) (ii) del due=C3=B1o de medios de transp= orte por los da=C3=B1os causados por accidentes de tr=C3=A1nsito (art=C3=AD= culo 1.651); (iii) los padres, tutores o guardadores en el caso de da=C3= =B1os causados por menores de edad e incapaces, salvo el caso &#x= a0;en el que los menores de edad que sean mayores de 15 a=C3=B1os y= los incapaces hayan actuado con lucidez (art=C3=ADculo 1.660); (iv) </span= > el director de ense=C3=B1anza o el jefe de taller, por lo= s da=C3=B1os causados por sus alumnos o aprendices menores de 15 a=C3=B1os = bajo su guarda (art=C3=ADculo 1.661); (v) del principal por los hechos il= =C3=ADcitos de sus dependientes en actos de servicio (art=C3=ADculo 1.663);= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">(vi) las personas jur=C3=ADdicas, por los hechos de sus representantes en= ejercicio de sus funciones (art=C3=ADculo 1.664); (vii) el Estado <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> y los M= unicipios, por los da=C3=B1os causados por sus funcionarios (art=C3=ADculo = 1.665); (viii) el due=C3=B1o o cuidador de animales por </= span>los da=C3=B1os ca= usados por =C3=A9stos (art=C3=ADculo 1.669); (ix) el due=C3=B1o de edificio= s, por el da=C3=B1o causado por su ruina (art=C3=ADculo 1.671); <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;69 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBOR= w0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAO= xAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJzt1rEJAgEQAMEVNFCwk7f/Rj7+DuzBHkyOg5kKNtwCAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWu00HLPGuPtVjOo= T1vtU5HQHAbvfpgCVe1VE9p0NY78rAAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAMC/fokxA/ckSVscAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" = alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />dos casos de resp= onsabilidad indirecta: (i) la del mandante por las conductas de sus mandata= rios;321 y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">(ii) la del princ= ipal, por las infracciones tributarias de sus dependientes.322 </s= pan>A estos s= upuestos se agrega la responsab= ilidad penal de personas jur=C3=ADdicas,323 que =E2=80=93en lo b=C3=A1sico= =E2=80=93 </s= pan>reproduce= el sistema de <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">responsabilidad = vicaria por atribuci=C3=B3n,324 que imputa responsabilidad a la persona = jur=C3=ADdica por el hecho de sus directores, gerentes, ejecutivos, representantes,= administradores, funcionarios o empleados con </spa= n>participaci=C3=B3n directa en el hec= ho, y sin cuya intervenci=C3=B3n no se hubiera realizado la conducta punibl= e, &#x= a0;as=C3= =AD como en los casos de defecto de organizaci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93culpa in eligendo </= span>o </span= >in vigilando=E2=80=93 que haya permitido el </= span> incumplimiento de las obligaciones tributarias por parte de lo= s =C3=B3rganos societarios encargados de dicha </spa= n>tarea, lo que= permite la traslaci=C3=B3n de la = consecuencia =E2=80=93la pena=E2=80=93 a la persona jur=C3=ADdica.325 </s= pan>Prima facie, el car=C3=A1cter vicario de la responsabilidad lesiona el car=C3=A1cter = personal de la imputaci=C3=B3n.326 Este <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= 0.05pt"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">no ser=C3=A1 problema si, por el contrario, la responsabilidad se atr= ibuye con base en la omisi=C3=B3n del deber <= /p>de cuidado que d= ebi=C3=B3 tener el mandante o el principal respecto de la elecci=C3=B3n, o = de las ejecutorias, del mandatario o dependiente.327 </span= >Las infraccion= es tributarias son conductas t=C3=ADpicas, antijur=C3=ADdicas y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">culpables<= /span>, lo qu= e demanda que todo tipo de resp= onsabilidad sancionadora parta siempre de un acto propio del responsable. E= sto no es otra <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">cosa que el principio de personalidad: la relaci=C3=B3n entre el ind= ividuo contra quien se dirige la consecuencia de lo il=C3=AD= cito y la sanci=C3=B3n siempre debe verificarse respecto del autor del acto= antijur=C3=ADdico. Para cumplir con este postulado, el acto= antijur=C3=ADdico que origina la responsabilidad sancionadora debe = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ser, necesariam= ente, el hecho del mandante o principal: es este quien omite el deber de cu= idado en la selecci=C3=B3n y la supervisi=C3=B3n del personal a su cargo, bajo los = l=C3=ADmites que impone la racionalidad y la = naturaleza comp= leja de las funciones asociadas al cumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tribu= taria. La cuesti=C3=B3n radica, entonces, en la <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">falta de tipicidad de esta conducta, toda vez que las soluciones norm= ativas guatemaltecas <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93= como las de b= uena parte de Latinoam=C3=A9rica=E2=80=93 acuden a la traslaci= =C3=B3n de la responsabilidad por el hecho del otro, sin describir la omisi=C3=B3n = de cuidado en comentarios como el hecho del que directamente se deriva la responsa= bilidad. Ello, adem=C3=A1s de generar dudas razonables respecto de la </spa= n> </spa= n>correspondencia con la culpabilidad,= parece ser violatorio de la reserva legal.328 </s= pan>As=C3=AD las cosas, la regulaci=C3= =B3n penal guatemalteca329 solventa parcialmente = el problema al regular la responsabilidad de personas jur=C3=ADdicas, cuando </span= >=E2=80=93</s= pan>adem=C3=A1s de la regla general de traslaci=C3=B3n vicaria de= la responsabilidad por el hecho de directores, gerentes, ej= ecutivos, representantes, administradores, </= p>funcionarios o empleados=E2=80=93 <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">tipifica expresamente como supuestos de responsabilidad los derivados = del </sp= an>def= ecto de organizaci=C3=B3n de la empresa: (i) actos de los = representantes autorizados org=C3=A1nicamente por </= span>y (x) los propiet= arios, arrendatarios, poseedores y quien aproveche bienes, por los da=C3=B1= os de todo tipo que =C3=A9stos puedan causar (art=C3=ADculo 1.672). </sp= an> 321 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=AD= culo 81. 322 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= enal, art=C3=ADculo 83. 323 GUATEMALA, = C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 38. 324 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ; letter-spacing:0.05pt">Vid. SILVA S=C3=81NCHEZ, Jes=C3=BAs Mar=C3=ADa (20= 08): =E2=80=9CLa evoluci=C3=B3n ideol=C3=B3gica de la discusi=C3=B3n sobre = la responsabilidad penal de las personas jur=C3=ADdicas=E2=80=9D, Derecho Pe= nal y Criminolog=C3=ADa, Vol. 29, No. 86-87, pp. 130-131. Disponi= ble en: https://revistas.uexternado.edu.co/index.php/derpen/article/view/6= 20/585. 325 WEFFE (2018), p. 276. </spa= n> 326 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4. </= span>327 WEFFE (2018), p. 279. 328 <= /span>WEFFE (2018), pp. 284-285, y secciones 2.= 1 y 2.4. 329 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo P= enal, art=C3=ADculo 38. 70 <span= style=3D"height:0pt; display:block; position:absolute; z-index:68"><img sr= c=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAA= BHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJztzlERQQEUQMHDGD8= CeAm10koKBfyKcd2xm2ALAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAB+xGk6sMS1ulfn6Qjrfar3dAKA3S7TgSWO6lHdpiOs96qe0wkAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA4I98AV6XBAAEL0Q2AAAAAElFTkSuQmC= C" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" /></sp= an>la persona jur=C3=ADdica; (ii) la culpa in eligendo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">o in vigilando= en la gesti=C3=B3n de la empresa, y como consecuencia </s= pan> esta obtiene un provecho econ=C3=B3mico; (iii) hechos punibles = directamente ordenados y ejecutados por = la persona jur=C3=ADdica, a trav=C3=A9s = de su organizaci=C3=B3n interna. Todo ello maximiza la necesidad de program= as &#x= a0;de cumplimiento tributario, = de los que los socios y administradores de empresas puedan obtener la </spa= n> </spa= n>certeza de la= conformidad de la actuaci=C3=B3n tributaria de la empresa con los est=C3= =A1ndares m=C3=ADnimos normativos y =C3=A9ticos de funcionamiento, para evitar sanc= iones.330 3.1.5.4. Circ= unstancias eximentes de responsabilidad penal tributaria. La extra=C3=B1a ausencia del error exc= usable como causa de inculpabilidad. </span= >La responsabilidad sancionadora surge= de la relaci=C3=B3n entre la conducta antijur=C3=ADdica y su autor = consciente y libre, eso ya se ha dicho.331 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">A contrario= , ello= explica que no exista responsabilidad cuando, por alguna raz=C3=B3n, el sujeto est=C3=A1 privado de la co= nsciencia o de la libertad en sus actos. En tales condiciones, lo <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>hecho no puede ser calificado como </spa= n>cond= ucta, = pues ello no deriva de la voluntad humana, y =E2=80=93er= go=E2= =80=93 no cumple con el requisito m=C3=ADnimo de relevancia del ha= cer relevante en Derecho Sancionador. Antes que t=C3=ADpico, antijur=C3=ADdico y cu= lpable, el il=C3=ADcito es conducta humana: esta, se insi= ste, requiere una direcci=C3=B3n consciente y libre de la vo= luntad hacia la realizaci=C3=B3n de un fin.332 Como puede verse, las si= tuaciones descritas son suscept= ibles de excluir el car=C3=A1cter de conducta de un determinado obrar humano, po= r lo &= #xa0;que son denominadas por = la doctrina causas de ausencia de acci=C3=B3n.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">33= 3 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Tambi=C3=A9n h= ay casos en los que, contrario a la regla general, un acto consciente y lib= re dirigido a lesionar o poner = en peligro un bien jur=C3=ADdico no es castigado. Resumid= amente, ello puede deberse a que el bien = jur=C3=ADdico protegido por la norma pen= al entra en conflicto con otro bien jur=C3=ADdico, defendido por el = = =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB en una situaci= =C3=B3n concreta, lo que debe ser resuelto por el Derecho a trav=C3=A9s de = la &#x= a0;ponderaci=C3=B3n</spa= n>334. Por una parte, si el bien jur=C3=ADdico del =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB es de = mayor valor que el protegido por la norma penal, entonces aquel estar=C3=A1 justif= icado, actuando seg=C3=BAn el Derecho, y obviamente no pue= de ser c= astigado: estaremos en presencia de una causa de j= ustificaci=C3=B3n335. Por la= otra, en algunas de estas situaciones el =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB carece de l= a capacidad de entender y de querer 330 Vid. BLANCO P= =C3=89REZ, Alicia (2017): Corporate Compliance: Especial R= eferencia al Compliance Tributario, Memoria de prueba <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;para obt= ar al grado en Derecho de la Universidad de Salamanca, pp. 34-41. Disponibl= e en: https://gredos.usal.es/jspui/bitstream/10366/136864/1/TFG_BLANCO_P%C= 3%89REZ_Alicia.pdf 331 Ver secciones 2 y 3.1.5. </sp= an>332 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.4; WELZEL (1956), pp. 35-36. = 333 </p= >Vid. DE LE=C3=93N VELASC= O, H=C3=A9ctor An=C3=ADbal (2000): =E2=80=9CLa acci=C3=B3n y la o= misi=C3=B3n como primer elemento del delito=E2=80=9D, en </= span>D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL= =C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis y GIM=C3=89NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.),= Manual de Derecho Penal </p= >Guatemalteco. Par= te General (Ciudad de Guatemala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa= =C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial= ), p. 155. <= /span>334 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2. 335= Son causas de justificaci=C3=B3n la leg=C3=ADtim= a defensa, el estado de necesidad justificado y el ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo = del Derecho, seg=C3=BAn el art=C3=ADculo 24 del C= =C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala. Es tambi=C3=A9n, el caso del consentimiento = del ofendido, en casos muy </= p>particulares de bienes j= ur=C3=ADdicos disponibles y el consentimiento no excluya la tipicidad de la= conducta. En espec=C3=ADfico, son causas de justificaci=C3=B3n del da=C3= =B1o consciente y voluntario realizado en el contexto de la pr=C3=A1ctica d= eportiva, siempre que el autor haya seguido los reg= lamentos deportivos y, evidentemente, no haya tenido voluntad de causar el = da=C3=B1o punible, seg=C3=BAn </span= >el art=C3=ADculo 153 = del C=C3=B3digo Penal de Guatemala; y la exceptio veritatis en el caso de la injuria, ex art=C3=ADculo 160 del C=C3=B3digo Penal </= span>de Guatemala. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; let= ter-spacing:0.05pt">71 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,= iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFl= zAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB8ZJREFUeJztw0ENACAMALFThW90TQSI4EfapAUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQLWqqY4+3gEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOACjL2SQn54w2YAAAAASUVORK5= CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />el a= cto il=C3=ADcito o su resultado, lo que demuestra su falta de aptitud para ser sujeto de la conminaci=C3=B3n sancionadora: estos son los cas= os de inimputabilidad, o de falta de capacidad de Derecho= Sancionador.336 Del mismo modo, si el bien jur=C3=ADdico d= el infractor es de igual o menor valor que el protegido por la <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> norma penal, habr=C3= =A1 que hacer un doble examen. En primer lugar, es necesario determinar si = el &#x= a0;=C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB, a pes= ar de haber dirigido conscientemente su voluntad a la realizaci=C3=B3n de l= a conducta, estaba consciente o= no de su car=C3=A1cter antijur=C3=ADdico, de su capacida= d para da=C3=B1ar o poner en peligro concreto </span= >al bien jur=C3=ADdico de que se trate= . En segundo lugar, en el supuesto que se establezca que el =C2=ABinfractor= =C2=BB ten=C3=ADa conciencia de la antijuridicidad de la conducta= ,337 es preciso evaluar las circunstancias del ob= rar del = =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB, para de all=C3=AD determinar si este tuvo la posibil= idad racional de adaptar su conducta a la advertencia normativa. En todos estos casos, tanto en el caso de= ausencia de capacidad jur=C3=ADdico- sancionadora, como el supuesto en el que el= =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB no haya tenido v=C3=A1lidamente conciencia de la </s= pan> da=C3=B1osi= dad de su conducta, como en el caso de que al =C2=ABinfractor=C2=BB no le s= ea racionalmente exigible adaptar su conducta a la advertencia de la norma sanciona= dora, estaremos en presencia de causas de <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal"> inc= ulpabilidad.338 A pesar de todo lo expuesto, plenamente aplicable= a la exclusi=C3=B3n de la responsabilidad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, el= C=C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala establece =C3=BAnicamente como circuns= tancias = que excluyen la responsabilidad por il=C3=ADcitos tributarios dos causales,= ambas de inculpabilidad: la </spa= n>incapacidad l= egal y absoluta y el caso fortuito y la fuerza mayor.339 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">La primera atie= nde a las denominadas causas de inimputabilidad: aquellas circunstancias que privan tota= lmente al sujeto de la conciencia o de la libertad en sus actos,340 </spa= n>situaci=C3=B3n que, de acuerdo con la caracterizaci=C3=B3n lega= l, debe ser legal y absoluta. La segunda se ref= iere a supuestos de no exigibilidad de otra conducta, supuestos en los <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>que al contribuye= nte o responsable no se le pod=C3=ADa exigir razonablemente una conducta distint= a que la del <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">incumplimiento de = la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria material o formal. El caso fortuito entra=C3= =B1a la imposibilidad material de realizaci=C3=B3n de la conducta exigida por la no= rma tributaria, que ha de determinar la = imposibilidad de actuar de otra forma no= solo para =C3=A9l, sino para cualquier otro sujeto que se hubiera <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>encontrado en las mismas circunstancias= . La fuerza mayor supone el ejercicio de una coacci=C3=B3n sobre <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >la voluntad del c= ontribuyente o responsable, venci=C3=A9ndola, e impulsando la realizaci=C3= =B3n de una conducta no deseada por el sujeto pasivo tributa= rio.341 Sin embargo, como f=C3=A1cilmente puede notarse, el= C=C3=B3digo Tributario omite toda regulaci=C3=B3n sobre las causas de ausen= cia de acci=C3=B3n,342 las caus= as de justificaci=C3=B3n343 y, particularmente no= table, sobre el error como causa de inculpabilidad, situaci=C3=B3n que, respetuosamente= , consideramos una deficiencia del sistema sancionador tributario guatemalteco. 336 <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">WE= FFE (2018), p. 304. 337 WEFFE (2018), p= . 310. 338 Vid. WEFFE (2018), p. 312. <= /span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">339 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, a= rt=C3=ADculo 78. 340 WEFFE (2010), pp. = 304-306. 341 WEFFE (2018), p. 312. </= span> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt;= letter-spacing:-0.05pt">342 </spa= n>A saber: actos inter= nos, movimientos reflejos y estados de inconsciencia, como el sonambulismo.= DE LE=C3=93N VELASCO (2000), p. 157. 343 </sp= an>A saber, en general: leg=C3=ADtima defensa, estado de necesidad, cump= limiento del deber, ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo del derecho. Vid. &#x= a0;ENR=C3=8D</s= pan>QUEZ COJULUN, Carlos Roberto (2000): =E2=80=9CEl delito como acci=C3= =B3n antijur=C3=ADdica=E2=80=9D, en D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL=C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis= <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">y GIM=C3=89NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.), Manu= al de Derecho Penal Guatemalteco. Parte General (Ciudad de </span= > Guate= mala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa=C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 = Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial), p. 257. </p= >72= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B+xJREFUeJzt1sEJwlAUAMEN3tKCN8uywrTkyR6sIC0YCDw+zFSwxy0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAACAG2zTAYt4Vu9qnw5heZ/qmI4AYG0G7j979aoe0yEs71d9pyMAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AADgkhO7GgQDRFXfPAAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Particularmente releva= nte es la ausencia de reconocimiento del error como eximente de <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> responsabilidad por= il=C3=ADcitos tributarios, sobre todo por su alta incidencia en una materi= a tan compleja <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">y cambiante como lo es la tributaria. En t=C3=A9rminos generales, el= error es una anomal=C3=ADa del juicio sobre = un objeto y sus caracter=C3=ADsticas, = sea porque el sujeto ignora =E2=80=93falta absoluta de conoci= miento= =E2=80=93 o porque su conocimiento es defe= ctuoso= , sea por incompleto o por falso.344 En el ISLR, esta anormalidad cognit= iva &#= xa0;recae sobre el <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal">deber de tributar,345 sea de forma: 1. Absoluta, por la impresi=C3=B3n err=C3= =B3nea de que una renta no se ha producido, como por ejemplo ser=C3=ADa <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>el caso de la di= vergencia interpretativa entre contribuyente y Administraci=C3=B3n Tributar= ia respe= cto del car=C3=A1cter devengado o percibido de una determinada renta, de acuerdo= con los principios contables d= e general aceptaci=C3=B3n,346 o bien respecto del car=C3=A1cter </span= >terri= torial de una determinada renta y, en consecuencia, de su gravab= ilidad con el ISLR en Guatemala,347 o2= . Relativa, por la impresi=C3=B3n err=C3=B3nea de que una= determinada renta es gravable bajo un r=C3=A9gimen = diferente, m=C3=A1s benigno que= el que le es realmente aplicable. Este riesgo es particularmente <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>notable en sistem= as cedulares como el guatemalteco, donde la base imponible348 </sp= an>es dividida en compartimientos estancos, o =C2= =ABc=C3=A9dulas=C2=BB, para determinar la renta gravable y el impuesto a pa= gar separadamente.349 As=C3=AD, un ejemplo sencillo de e= ste tipo de error lo constituye la calificaci=C3=B3n de una determinada renta, frutos civiles derivados d= el uso del dinero =E2=80=93y en consecuencia, subsumible en principio como re= nta de capital=E2=80=93350, com= o renta derivada del ejercicio de las =C2=ABotras=C2=BB &= #xa0;a= ctividades lucrativas a las que se refiere la definici=C3=B3n de la base im= ponible351 en el caso del ISLR aplicable a las actividades lucrativas.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">3= 52 = Como puede ve= rse, la anomal=C3=ADa del juicio que el contribuyente o responsable realiza= sobre la existencia o no de la= obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria por concepto de ISLR, la que = =E2=80=93en =C3=BAltima instancia=E2=80=93 determina la comisi=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito, deriva de una interpretaci=C3=B3n = incorrecta de la normativa contentiva de derechos y 344 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= >WEFFE (2018), p. 306-307. 345 Adem=C3= =A1s de la posibilidad que se analiza en el texto principal, que es la que = ordinariamente dar=C3=A1 lugar al error excusable </= p>como causa de inculpabil= idad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, cabe la posibilidad de error </s= pan>de prohibici=C3=B3n sobre el </span= >incumplimiento </span= >=E2=80=93ya no excusable, sino = atenuado=E2=80=93 del deber de tributar por l= a irracionalidad en el gasto p=C3=BAblico por parte = del Estado. Hay que de= jar a salvo, sin embargo, el supuesto en que se demuestre fehacientemente l= a utilizaci=C3=B3n de la recaudaci=C3=B3n fiscal por el Estado para la con= secuci=C3=B3n de fines il=C3=ADcitos, caso en el cual estaremos frente a un= a clara causa de justificaci=C3=B3n, antes que de inculpabilid= ad. WEFFE (2018), p. 311. 346 Ello pod= r=C3=ADa ocurrir, por ejemplo, en el caso de obligaciones sometidas a condi= ci=C3=B3n o t=C3=A9rmino, en aplicaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&#= xa0;52 de la Le= y de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria de Guatemala. Seg=C3=BAn la norma, el el= emento temporal del hecho generador en el ISLR guatemalteco para las renta= s de las actividades lucrativas =E2=80=9Cse enti= ende por sistema contable de lo devengado, el sistema contable <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:1= 0pt"> consistente en registrar los ingresos o los costos y gastos en el moment= o en que nacen como derechos u obligaciones y no cuando se hacen efectivos<= /span>=E2=80=9D. Sobre la temporalidad= del hecho generador en el ISLR, ver WEFFE H., Carlos E. (2017): =E2=80=9CP= rincipios de la imposici=C3=B3n vs. temporalidad del hecho imponible en el= impuesto sobre la renta. Notas sobre el (nuevo) r=C3=A9gimen de disponibil= idad de ingresos, costos y gastos=E2=80=9D, Revista de la Facultad de Derecho, No. 71= (Caracas, UCAB), pp. 151-188. Disponible en: <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">https://weffe.net/weffe/inde= x.php/component/k2/item/404-principios-de-la-imposicion-vs-temporalidad-del= -hecho- imponible-en-el-impuesto-sobre-la-renta-notas-sobre-el-nuevo-regim= en-de-disponibilidad-de-ingresos-costos-y-gastos </p= >347 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 4. 348 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci= =C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 1. 349 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= ">El art=C3=ADculo 2 de la Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria divide la r= enta gravable con el ISLR en Guatemala en tres categor=C3=ADas: <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">&= #xa0;(i) las = rentas de las actividades lucrativas; (ii) las rentas del trabajo; (iii) la= s rentas del capital y las ganancias de capital. </p= >350 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 88. 351 &#= xa0;Excluyendo,= claro est=C3=A1, los casos que han sido regulados expresamente a este obje= to en el art=C3=ADculo 15 de la Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria de = Guatemala. 352 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actual= izaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 20. 73 </span= > <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAA= AMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFU= eJztzjENAgEQAMElIbwBJKEbMyig+I4CCVTkcsmMgikAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA+IfLdGCJe/WojukI672q53QCgN2u04ElPtW7uk1HW= O+cDgAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPzyBUz0BO5N= nbQiAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"positi= on:absolute" />obligaciones dentro de la relaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdico-tributaria. = Como ha sostenido con acierto la doctrina: =E2=80=9CSe debe tener en cuenta,= en primer lugar, la multiplicidad, variabilidad e inestabilidad de las ley= es tributarias que se traduce en una complejidad atentatoria del prin= cipio de certeza y que justifica en no pocos casos la confusi=C3=B3n = y el equ=C3=ADvoco del contribuyente, lo cual se producir=C3=A1 inevitablem= ente mientras no exista =E2=80=98una mayor idoneidad en las expresion= es de la ley fiscal que desprovistas del agudo tecnicismo lleven a l= a conciencia del pueblo al estado de certeza=E2=80=99, de tal suerte que </= span> =E2=80=98exterioricen con precisi=C3=B3n y no complejamente el modo de = conducta fijado a una persona dada.=E2=80=9D353 <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 7pt"> En este sentido, cuando la normativa que regula la actividad humana, cuy= o incumplimiento est=C3=A1 sometido a castigo =E2=80=93como es el caso del Derecho Tributario</= span>=E2=80= =93 es sumamente complicada, de dif=C3=ADcil comprensi=C3=B3n y cu= ya cambiante realidad impone a las personas sujetas a su imperio una agobia= nte =E2=80=93y </s= pan>nunca completa=E2=80=93 labor de actualizaci= =C3=B3n, para seguirle la pista a los deberes impuestos = por la norma fiscal. =C2=BFHasta qu=C3=A9 punto puede hablarse de =E2=80=9Cconocimi= ento de la ilicitud=E2=80=9D que fundamente el dolo necesario para el reproche sancionador tributario? Tal como se=C3=B1ala la doctrina= , el incorrecto conocimiento de los preceptos tributarios r= elevantes para la existencia de una concreta infracci=C3=B3n en cuanto afec= tar=C3=ADa al tipo mismo del il=C3=ADcito, debe ser tomado en consideraci=C3=B3n para a= plicarse en materia de infracciones tributarias.354 </span= >Ahora, si bien ninguna de estas circu= nstancias es tomada en cuenta por el C=C3=B3digo Tributario a la hora </spa= n> </spa= n>de la determinaci=C3=B3n de la comis= i=C3=B3n o no de un il=C3=ADcito tributario, omisi=C3=B3n tanto m=C3=A1s gr= ave cuanto de <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">ella depende =E2=80=93en una medida muy importante<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'">=E2=80=93 </sp= an>la = proporcionalidad del sistema sancionador tributario,<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">355= <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">ello no debe in= terpretarse como imposibilidad de invocar causas de jus= tificaci=C3=B3n o de culpabilidad en el Derecho Sancionador Tributario, especialme= nte en el campo de aplicaci=C3=B3n del impuesto m=C3=A1s &= #xa0;importante356 <= /span>y complejo357 de todo sistema tributario como lo es el= ISLR. L= a respuesta =E2=80=93parcial=E2=80=93 al problema se halla en la declaraci= =C3=B3n general contenida en el C=C3=B3digo Penal, de = 0;acuerd= o con la cual este es fondo general supletorio de todas l= as materias de naturaleza penal, reguladas </= p>por otras leyes, en cuanto estas, impl= =C3=ADcita o expresamente, no dispusieren lo contrario.358 </spa= n>Ello permit= e = 0;la apl= icaci=C3=B3n de las causas de justificaci=C3=B3n ge= n=C3=A9ricas establecidas en ese C=C3=B3digo, entre las cu= ales destacan el ejercicio leg=C3=ADtimo de un derecho y la = posibilidad general de causas supralegales de justificaci=C3=B3n, como </sp= an> f=C3=B3rmula= s de ponderaci=C3=B3n aplicables casu=C3=ADsticamente para aquellos casos d= e ausencia de lesi=C3=B3n efectiva o potencial al bien jur=C3=ADdico derivada de la realizaci=C3=B3n de un= a conducta en principio t=C3=ADpica.359 = Por su parte, la = ausencia de regulaci=C3=B3n expresa del error, tanto de t= ipo como de prohibici=C3=B3n,360 como causa de inculpabilidad en el Derecho Pena= l guatemalteco no significa la imposibilidad de exigir su = 353 VILLEGAS, H=C3=A9ctor B. (1998): <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; font-size:= 10pt">R=C3=A9gimen penal tributario argentino, (Buenos Aires, Edi= ciones Depalma), pp. 136-137. 354 ZORNO= ZA P=C3=89REZ, Juan Jos=C3=A9 (1992): El sistema de infrac= ciones y sanciones tributarias (Los principios constitucionales del Derecho= sancionador, (Madrid, Editorial Civitas), p. 88; = WEFFE (2018), p. 310. 355 Ver secci= =C3=B3n 2.2. 356 Ver secci=C3=B3n 1. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">357 Famosa es la expresi=C3=B3n de A</spa= n>LBERT EINSTEIN, se= g=C3=BAn la cual =E2=80=9Clo m=C3=A1s dif=C3=ADcil de ente= nder en el mundo es el impuesto sobre la renta=E2=80=9D. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt= "> 358 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo= 9. 359 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, a= rt=C3=ADculo 24. Al respecto, ver ENR=C3=8DQUEZ COJULUN (2000), p. 257; y W= EFFE (2010), pp. 305-339. 360 Sobre la= distinci=C3=B3n entre error de tipo y error de prohibici=C3=B3n, y su apli= caci=C3=B3n al Derecho Sancionador Tributario, ver <= /p>WEFFE (2018), pp. 310-3= 11. 74 = <img src=3D"data:image/png;= base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAA= AAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+hJREFUeJzt1rEJAgEQAMEVNFCwk7f/Rj7+DuzBHkyOg5k= KNtwCAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAWu0= 0HLPGuPtVjOoT1vtU5HQHAbvfpgCVe1VE9p0NY78rAAQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMC/fokxA/ckSVscAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" hei= ght=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />aplicaci=C3=B3n a todos los = =C3=A1mbitos del Derecho Sancionador, incluyendo al Derecho Tributario:</sp= an>361 su aplicaci=C3=B3n es un imperativ= o de la dignidad humana,362 fundamental a todo el si= stema jur=C3=ADdico y reconocida constitucionalmente.363 </= span>3.1.5.5. <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Causas de extinc= i=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n sancionadora tributaria &#= xa0;y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n tributaria. El derecho del Estado= para ejercer el ius puniendi no es eterno. Como todo derecho subjetivo estatal,= = ;el </sp= an>ius= puniendi est=C3=A1 naturalmente sometido a limitaciones.<= /span>364 Adem=C3=A1s de otros confines, los criterios d= e idonei= dad y necesidad, bajo la forma de la subsidiariedad de la intervenci=C3=B3n= punitiva,365 al igual que la culpabilidad, bajo la forma de la personalidad,366 determinan l=C3=ADm= ites materiales y temporales al ejercicio del poder sancionador, de manera que (i) el Estad= o ya no pueda perseguir al infractor para imponerle la sanci=C3=B3n; y (ii) el Estado, una vez impuesta la= sanci=C3=B3n, la ejecute o contin=C3=BAe ejecut=C3=A1ndola. En el <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Derecho Sancionador, estas circunstanci= as son conocidas como causas para la extinci=C3=B3n de la= pretensi=C3=B3n estatal de imponer la sanci=C3=B3n en el ca= so de infracciones al ordenamiento tributario =E2=80=93 </= span> extinci=C3= =B3n de la acci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93, o de la decadencia de la posibi= lidad jur=C3=ADdica de ejecutar la sanci=C3=B3n previamente impuesta, extinci=C3=B3= n de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la sanci=C3=B3n. De acuerdo con la enumeraci=C3=B3n legal= ,367 las infracciones y sanciones tributarias en = Guatemala se extinguen por la muerte del infractor, la exoneraci=C3=B3n o condonaci= =C3=B3n, la declaratoria de inc= obrabilidad368 y la prescripci=C3=B3n. Sobran los comentarios respecto de la pri= mera de las causas de extinci=C3=B3n de la acci=C3=B3n penal mencionadas. La muerte= =E2=80=93cesaci=C3=B3n definitiva de las funciones vitales de u= na persona=E2=80=93 extingue la personalidad, no s=C3=B3lo f=C3=ADsica sino jur=C3=ADdica del <= /span>de cuius. As=C3=AD, siendo que la responsabilidad por il= =C3=ADcitos tributarios es eminentemente personal,369 l= a responsabilidad por la comisi=C3=B3n de il=C3=ADcitos tributarios = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">resulta = intransferible, con independencia del car= =C3=A1cter pecuniario de la sanci=C3=B3n que eventualmente haya <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> sido impuesta. Como con acierto lo regula el C=C3=B3digo Penal, la muer= te extingue la pena pecuniaria impuesta pendiente de satisfacer, y todas las cons= ecuencias penales de la misma.370 Igualmente, poco hay que = decir respecto de la amnist=C3=ADa como medio de extinci=C3=B3n de la acci= =C3=B3n sancionadora tributaria y de la ejecuci=C3=B3n de la= s sanciones tributarias. La amnist=C3=ADa =E2=80=93denominada po= r el C= =C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala =C2=ABexoneraci=C3=B3n=C2=BB o =C2=ABcon= donaci=C3=B3n=C2=BB=E2=80=93, consiste en la renuncia estatal al= castigo de la infracci=C3=B3n o del delito, fundamentalment= e por causas de pol=C3=ADtica criminal, en ejercicio del &= #xa0;361 <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Vid. RODR=C3=8DGUEZ BARILLAS= , Alejandro (2000): =E2=80=9CEl tipo subjetivo de los delitos de acci=C3=B3= n dolosos=E2=80=9D, en D=C3=8DEZ RIPOLL=C3=89S, Jos=C3=A9 Luis y GIM=C3=89= NEZ-SALINAS I COLOMER, Esther (Coords.), Manual de Derecho= Penal Guatemalteco. Parte General (Ciudad de Guat= emala, Agencia de Cooperaci=C3=B3n Espa=C3=B1ola =E2=80=93 </span= >Consejo Superior del Poder Judicial), p. 207. </= p>362 Ver secciones 1 y 2. 363 <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5p= t; letter-spacing:-0.05pt"> GUATEMALA, Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, art=C3=ADculo= 2. As=C3=AD lo defiende, en opini=C3=B3n con la que concordamos plenamente= , = RODR=C3=8DGUEZ BARILLAS (2000), p. 208. 364 </= span>Ver secci=C3=B3n 2. 365 Ver sec= ciones 2.2.1 y 2.2.2. 366 Ver secci= =C3=B3n 2.4. 367 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo= Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 75. 368 GUAT= EMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 55. </p= >369 Ver secci=C3=B3n 3.1.5.1. 370 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 103. </= span>75 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB9JJREFUeJztzgENgEAMALHDAT5QhxcEIe1lLEtaBS0AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= ABgk2s6sMRTfdU9HWG9v3qnEwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAMOLqUCAkIWonEAAAAASUVORK= 5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute"= />den= ominado principio de oportunidad, corolario de la necesidad =E2=80=93m=C3=ADnima intervenc= i=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 en materia = sancionadora.</sp= an>371 Su efecto es el de extinguir por completo la sanc= i=C3=B3n y todos sus efectos, de acuerdo = con la dicci=C3= =B3n del C=C3=B3digo Penal.372 Es particularment= e importante se=C3=B1alar que la amnist=C3=ADa debe cumplir = con las formalidades propias del acto legislativo; en pocas palabras, la am= nist=C3=ADa debe ser otorgada por ley formal emanada del Pod= er Legislativo, e igualmente la amnist=C3=ADa debe versar sobre hechos pasa= dos y co= ncretos, determinando con toda precisi=C3=B3n el alcance objetivo y subjeti= vo de sus efectos. Obvio es decir que, si la ley que decreta una =C2=ABamnist=C3=AD= a=C2=BB extiende sus efectos hacia hechos futuros, no pod= r=C3=A1 hablarse de amnist=C3=ADa, sino de una ley penal gen= eral que despenaliza el hecho all=C3=AD descrito. La declaratoria de incobrabilidad es, = tambi=C3=A9n, una forma de ejercicio del principio de oportunidad en </span= > <= span class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">materia sancionadora.373 Dada la naturaleza econ=C3=B3mica del = bien jur=C3=ADdico que es objeto de protecci=C3=B3n en el Derecho Tributario, la i= rrelevancia del inter=C3=A9s econ=C3=B3mico comprometido en el cumplimiento de </= span> </= span>una determ= inada obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, en raz=C3=B3n de su cuant=C3=ADa, impone = el cese de la persecuci=C3=B3n sancionadora, fundamentalmente por motivos de econ= om=C3=ADa. Desde el punto de vista financiero, no tiene sentido que el Estado dedique ingentes recursos a = la persecuci=C3=B3n de hechos il=C3=ADcitos que, por su insignificancia, representan una carga econ=C3=B3= mica para el Estado mayor que el efecto resocializador o de mayor eficiencia del si= stema tributario que pudiera derivar de su cumplimiento. Por otra parte, en= la medi= da en la que el Derecho Sancionador est=C3=A1 consagrado a la protecci=C3= =B3n de bienes jur=C3=ADdicos, la necesidad impone que la sanci=C3=B3n se aplique = solo cuando ella puede lograr eficazmente sus cometidos, lo que no es el caso en es= tos aut=C3=A9nticos il=C3=ADcitos bagatela. Otro tanto debe predicarse de aquell= os casos en los que, independie= ntemente de su cuant=C3=ADa, la sanci=C3=B3n pecuniaria tributaria sea de <= /span>= imposible cumplimiento: = cuando el infractor ha sido declarado en quiebra o sea de imposib= le ubicaci=C3=B3n, y no existan bienes o = derechos sobre los cuales pueda hacerse = efectiva la deuda tributaria. F= inalmente, como se=C3=B1ala la doctrina, =E2=80=9C[E]l transcurso del tiempo= , por voluntad de la ley, tiene tambi=C3=A9n como consecuencia la extinci= =C3=B3n de la responsabilidad penal. Se trat= a de una necesidad social fundada en la realidad de las cosas, <span= class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = lo que aconseja poner un t=C3=A9rmino a la persecuci=C3=B3= n penal, considerando extinguido el delito o la &#x= a0;pena. El tiempo realiza su labor y, en definitiva, impone a la sociedad s= us condiciones. Se trata, pues, de exigencias pr=C3=A1cticas de una p= arte, y del olvido del hecho y de sus consecuencias, de la otra, <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> </s= pan>lo que hace desaparecer la = necesidad del castigo que se muestra ya como inoportuno e innecesario, </sp= an>&#x= a0;m=C3=A1xime cuando ha= desaparecido la conmoci=C3=B3n social por el impacto ocasionado por la rup= tura del <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'VCQGHN+Garamond Italic'">equilibr= io =C3=A9tico a causa del delito.=E2=80=9D374 As=C3=AD, el C=C3=B3digo Tributario prev=C3=A9 la prescripci=C3=B3n como f= orma de extinci=C3=B3n, tanto de la acci=C3=B3n </sp= an>sancionadora tributaria como de la = sanci=C3=B3n fiscal, por la inactividad de la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributari= a = 0;en la persecuci=C3=B3n y cast= igo de los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios en el transcurso de cinco a=C3=B1os, c= ontados a partir <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">del momento de comisi=C3=B3n del il=C3=ADcito =E2=80=93para la acci=C3=B3n=E2=80=93 o quede firme la sanci=C3=B3n =E2=80=93para la ejecuci=C3=B3n= =E2=80=93</sp= an>, <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>respectivamente.375 <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:7pt">&= #xa0;371 Ver secci=C3=B3n 2.2.= 2. 372 GUATEMAL= A, C=C3=B3digo Penal, art=C3=ADculo 104. 373 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 55. = 374 ARTEAGA S=C3=81NCHEZ, Alberto (1998): Derecho Penal Venezolano, (Caracas, Editorial McGrawHill, oct= ava edici=C3=B3n), p. 308. </spa= n>375 GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3digo Tributario, art=C3=ADculo 76. </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl08" style=3D"font-family:'FGDLCU+Calibri'; font-size:11pt; let= ter-spacing:0.05pt">76 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,= iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFl= zAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB8ZJREFUeJztw0ENACAMALFThW90TQSI4EfapAUAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAQLWqqY4+3gEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOACjL2SQn54w2YAAAAASUVORK5= CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" = />En t=C3=A9rminos generales, la comisi=C3=B3n de il=C3=AD= citos de resultado, como lo son los il=C3=ADcitos sustant= ivos tri= butarios,376 viene dada por el momento de exigibi= lidad de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria, material o formal, cuyo incumplimiento est= =C3=A1 castigado. As=C3=AD, por ejemplo, en el ISLR sobre actividades lucra= tivas, la consumaci=C3=B3n vend= r=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo para efectuar los pagos trimestra= les del = impuesto,377 o de la liquidaci=C3=B3n definitiva = del impuesto vencido el plazo de tres meses siguientes al = cierre del ejercicio,</s= pan>378 a t=C3=ADtulo de contribuyente. En el r=C3=A9gimen simplificado de ISLR sobre actividades lucrativas, = para el contribuyente la consumaci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo mensual para el pa= go del impuesto, en los casos en los que haya sido autorizado por la Administraci=C3=B3n Tributaria para e= l pago directo de la obligaci=C3=B3n.379 Del mismo modo, la consumaci=C3=B3n de il=C3=ADcitos formales = respecto de la declaraci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el vencimiento del plazo de l= os diez primeros d=C3=ADas del mes siguiente al de la emisi=C3=B3n de las f= acturas por el contribuyente para la presentaci=C3=B3n de la= declaraci=C3=B3n. En ese mismo supuesto, la consumaci=C3=B3n de <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">los il=C3=ADcitos tributarios materiales vendr=C3=A1 dado por el venci= miento del plazo de diez d=C3=ADas del mes </= p>siguiente a aquel en que se emiti=C3=B3 = la constancia de retenci=C3=B3n, para enterar las retenciones practicadas <= /span> <= /span>seg=C3=BAn este r=C3=A9gimen.</s= pan>380 La falta de notificaci=C3=B3n del cambio de r=C3=A9gimen, de ordinario = a simplificado, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">estar=C3=A1 con= sumada al cierre del ejercicio previo a aquel en el que operar=C3=A1 dicho = cambio.381 En el caso del ISLR sobre el trabajo en relaci= =C3=B3n de dependencia, la consumaci=C3=B3n vendr=C3=A1 dada por el = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">vencimiento del= plazo de tres meses para la declaraci=C3=B3n y pago de la diferencia de im= puesto resultante, en el caso q= ue al trabajador-contribuyente no le hayan sido practicadas las retenciones= , o que el monto <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">de estas reten= ciones haya sido inferior a la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria total del trabaja= dor.382 Desde el punto de vi= sta de los patronos, responsables como agentes de retenci=C3=B3n de este im= puesto, dentro de los diez prim= eros d=C3=ADas de cada mes.383 Finalmente, en el caso del ISLR sobre rentas pasiv= as o de capital, los agentes de retenci=C3=B3n est=C3=A1n obligados a enterar el impuesto retenido dentro = de los diez primeros d=C3=ADas del mes siguiente al de la realizaci=C3=B3n del pago= que d=C3=A9 lugar al nacimiento del hecho imponible,384 <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">plazo que ser= =C3=A1 igualmente = aplicable al contribuyente en el caso de ausencia de retenciones.= 385 Un r=C3=A9gimen id=C3=A9ntico es aplicable al cumplimiento de la obligaci=C3=B3n tributaria en el c= aso de las rentas obtenidas por no residentes.386 <= /span>Ribeira Brava, abril de 2021. </= span> </= span>376 Este es el caso de la omisi=C3=B3n= de pago de tributos y de la mora, tipificados en los art=C3=ADculos 88, 89= y 92 del C=C3=B3digo Tributario de Guatemala. </= p>377 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADcu= lo 38. 378 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizac= i=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 39. 379 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculos 45 y = 46. 380 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci= =C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 48. 381 </spa= n>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, GUATEMALA, C=C3=B3dig= o Tributario, art=C3=ADculos 51; y 94.1. 382 </sp= an>GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 81. </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt; = letter-spacing:-0.05pt">383 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n = Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 80. 384 GUATE= MALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculo 94. &#x= a0;385 GUATEMALA, Ley de Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria,= art=C3=ADculo 95. 386 GUATEMALA, Ley d= e Actualizaci=C3=B3n Tributaria, art=C3=ADculos 105 y 106. = 77 IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN</span= > </span= >1607-4319) <= /span> <= /span>Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciemb= re 2021 = pp. 78 - 90 _______________________________________________________= ______________________________ Acci=C3=B3n de Inconstitucionalidad pr= esentada por el Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal contra el =C3=BAltimo = p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 de la = ley 60 de 29 de diciembre de </= span>2006<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QUAUEP+Garamond Bold'; font-size= :22pt; letter-spacing:0.1pt">, =E2=80=9CQue reforma el C=C3=B3digo Electoral=E2=80=9D, Entrada = No. 647-08 Magistrado Ponente = Oyd=C3=A9n Ortega Dur=C3=A1n </= span>_________________________________________________________________________= _____ REP=C3=9ABLICA DE PANAM=C3=81 = =C3= =93RGANO JUDICIAL CORTE SUPREMA DE JUSTICIA =E2=80=93 PLENO <= /p>PANAM=C3=81= , VEINTISIETE (27) DE NOVIEMBRE DE DOS MIL CATORCE (2014) I. DISPOSICI=C3=93N ACUSADA DE INCONSTITUCIONALIDAD <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">1. La Acci=C3=B3n procesal que nos ocupa, plantea ante este Tribunal C= onstitucional, la inconstitucionalidad = del =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, tal como fue a= probado mediante la Ley 60 de 29 de diciembre de 2006, promu= lgada en la Gaceta Oficial N=C2=B025702 de 2 de enero de 2007. <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 2. El referido texto legal impugnado es del tenor siguiente: <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> "Art=C3=ADculo 257 Cada partido pol=C3=ADtico podr=C3=A1 postular un c= andidato a Alcalde y a Representante de Corregimiento. = Igualmente podr=C3=A1n presentars= e candidatos por libre postulaci=C3=B3n. Dos o m=C3=A1s partidos pol= =C3=ADticos podr=C3=A1n postular a los mismos candidatos para principal y s= uplente a Alcaldes, y para principal y suplente a Representante de Co= rregimiento, caso en el cual los candidatos aparecer=C3=A1n en la columna d= e cada <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">partido en= la boleta =C3=BAnica de votaci=C3=B3n. Los candidatos principales o suplentes por libre po= stulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos</= span>". II. DISPOSICIONES CONSTITUCIONALES INFRINGIDAS <= /p>3. Sostiene el r= ecurrente que, el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3= =B3digo Electoral infringe el Art=C3=ADculo <= /p>1 de la Constitu= ci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual expresa lo siguiente: </= span>"<s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-s= pacing:normal">Art=C3=ADculo 1. La Naci=C3=B3n paname=C3=B1a est=C3=A1 orga= nizada en Estado soberano e independiente, cuya denominaci=C3=B3n es </span= > = Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. Su Gobierno es unitario, republicano, democr= =C3=A1tico y representativo". </spa= n>4. Esta norma ha sido violada, al de= cir del activador constitucional, de manera directa por omisi=C3=B3n, </spa= n> </spa= n>por considerar que la misma establec= e que la Naci=C3=B3n Paname=C3=B1a tiene un Gobierno "Democr=C3=A1tico", lo= = ;que a s= u juicio se desvirt=C3=BAa cuando el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=AD= culo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral vigente </= p>establece la impo= sibilidad que una persona se postule libremente y pueda ser postulada al mi= smo tiem= po por un partido pol=C3=ADtico como candidato independiente, con el apoyo = de la mayor=C3=ADa de los 78 <= /span>paname=C3= =B1os, quienes son los que pueden elegir a los que en realidad ellos desean= ; se=C3=B1alando que, el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o es el que l= e da sustento y validez al sistema democr=C3=A1tico y por ende al sistema <= /span> electoral. Que, el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o, como objeto y suj= eto de la Constituci=C3=B3n se ve relegado en un </s= pan>segundo pla= no cuando tiene la calidad de independiente, seg=C3=BAn lo descrito en el a= rt=C3=ADculo 257 en examen. 5. Igualmente, de acuerdo con el recurrente, el =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral infringe el Art=C3=ADcu= lo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual es del siguiente tenor: </sp= an> </sp= an>"<spa= n class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spa= cing:normal">Art=C3=ADculo 4. La Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 acata las no= rmas de Derecho Internacional". </s= pan>6. Esta nor= ma, seg=C3=BAn el autor de esta iniciativa, ha sido violada de manera direc= ta por omisi=C3=B3n, en atenci=C3=B3n a que la citada dispos= ici=C3=B3n reconoce el Derecho Internacional como rector de la convivencia = nacional= , la cual es violada porque la norma acusada de inconstitucional infringe l= a Convenci=C3=B3n = Americana de Derechos Humanos, reconocida y acatada por la Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. 7. El art=C3=ADculo 23 de esta Conv= enci=C3=B3n se=C3=B1ala lo siguiente: "Art=C3=ADculo 23: De= rechos Pol=C3=ADticos 1. Todos los ciudadanos deben gozar de los siguientes= derechos y oportunidades: a) de participar en la direcci=C3=B3n de l= os asuntos p=C3=BAblicos, directamente o por medio de representantes librem= ente elegidos; b) de votar y ser elegidos en e= lecciones peri=C3=B3dicas aut=C3=A9nticas, realizadas por sufragio universa= l e igual y por voto secreto que <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">garantice la = libre expresi=C3=B3n de la voluntad de los electores, y c) de tener acceso,= en condiciones generales de igualdad, a las = funciones p=C3=BAblicas = de su pa=C3=ADs. 2. La ley puede reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos y= oportunidades a que se refiere el inciso anterior, exclusivamente po= r razones de edad, nacionalidad, residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capa= cidad civil o mental, o condena, por juez comp= etente, en proceso penal." 8. Seg=C3= =BAn el activador constitucional, el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=AD= culo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral va en contra de lo que debe acatar la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 de = la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, al limitar el derecho de los ciud= adanos a solo poder ser candidatos por el m=C3=A9todo de la libre <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">postulaci=C3=B3n,= quedando excluidos de una posible postulaci=C3=B3n por un partido pol=C3= =ADtico. 9. El =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Elect= oral, se=C3=B1ala finalmente el recurrente, infringe el &= #xa0;Art=C3=ADculo 19 de la C= onstituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el cual indica lo siguiente: " Art=C3=ADculo 19. No habr=C3=A1 fueros o privi= legios ni discriminaci=C3=B3n por raz=C3=B3n de raza, nacimiento, discapaci= dad, clase social, sexo, religi=C3=B3n o ideas pol=C3=ADticas<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :0.05pt">". 10. Sostiene el Doctor Bernal Villalaz que, la norma citada ha sido vio= lada de manera directa por omis= i=C3=B3n, ya que seg=C3=BAn el mismo, la norma demandada establece que los = candidatos principales y suplentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser p= ostulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos, y sin embargo, dos o = m=C3=A1s partidos pol=C3=ADticos pueden postular a los mismos candidatos pa= ra principal y suplente a Alcaldes, y para principal y suple= nte a Representante; quedando, a su entender, en evidencia, la desigualdad = con respecto a los no inscritos en un partido pol=C3=ADtico,= en relaci=C3=B3n con los integrantes de un determinado &= #xa0;partido. En este aspecto= agrega que, "la transgresi=C3=B3n directa por acci=C3=B3n establecida en e= l art=C3=ADculo 257 cercena toda la posibilidad para los ciudadanos independientes = de ser postulados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico al mismo tiempo que tomar el camino = de la libre postulaci=C3=B3n". 79 &#= xa0;III. OPINI=C3=93N DE L= A PROCURADURIA GENERAL DE LA NACI=C3=93N 11. Al emitir la Procuradora General de la Naci=C3=B3n su op= ini=C3=B3n en esta acci=C3=B3n de inconstitucionalidad, lo hace mediante su Vista = N=C2=B0 36 de 19 de diciembre de 2008. Sostiene en su Vista que, al adoptar= se un si= stema de gobierno democr=C3=A1tico y representativo, el Estado paname=C3=B1= o reconoce que sus ciudadanos tienen derecho a participar en las estructuras que co= nforman el gobierno a trav=C3=A9s de la = postulaci=C3=B3n en los cargos de elecci= =C3=B3n popular, as=C3=AD como tambi=C3=A9n tienen el derecho de escoger a = las &#= xa0;personas que las representa= r=C3=A1n en dichas estructuras de gobierno, mediante la emisi=C3=B3n del vo= to. Que, el derecho pol=C3=ADtico que tiene el ciudadano paname=C3=B1o, se traduce = no solamente en el derecho a elegir libremente sus gobernantes, sino tambi=C3=A9n a= ser elegido en aquellos cargos que se acceden por votaci=C3=B3n <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >popular. 12. Expresa el representante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico la li= mitaci=C3=B3n en el derecho de elegir y ser elegido que se produce por raz=C3=B3n de la existencia del =C3= =BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, lo <= /span> <= /span>que calif= ica como una colisi=C3=B3n con la normativa constitucional que reconoce que= el gobierno paname=C3=B1o es democr=C3=A1tico, por cuanto que establece una prohib= ici=C3=B3n para aquellos ciudadanos que pretendan postularse libremente como candi= datos principales o suplentes a los puestos de elecci=C3=B3n popular de Alcalde o R= epresentante de Corregimiento, y al mismo tiempo puedan postularse como </s= pan> </s= pan>candidatos en un partido pol=C3=AD= tico. Indica igualmente este funcionario, que la prohibici=C3=B3n estableci= da &#x= a0;en la= norma objeto de censura, impide el pleno goce de los derechos pol=C3=ADtic= os de aquellos ciudadanos que no forman parte de un partido = pol=C3=ADtico, as=C3=AD como tambi=C3=A9n se restringe el derecho pol=C3=AD= tico de los miembros de un partido pol=C3=ADtico, al no pode= r postular a un candidato independiente o de libre <= /span>postulaci=C3=B3n. 13. Se pronuncia la Procuradora General de la= Naci=C3=B3n para que el candidato por libre postulaci=C3=B3n a <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = los puestos de el= ecci=C3=B3n popular de Alcalde y Representante de Corregimiento, goce en un= plano de igualdad, del mismo derecho de elegir y ser elegido, independientemente q= ue se encuentre inscrito o no e= n un partido pol=C3=ADtico, por lo que la limitaci=C3=B3n contenida en la p= arte final del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, vulnera la democracia participativa consagrada= en el art=C3=ADculo 1 de nuestra Carta Magna; ya que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo d= el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral en ninguna manera coadyuva a= la realizaci=C3=B3n de la democracia participativa que cons= agra nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, raz=C3=B3n por la que conside= ra que s= e ha demostrado el cargo de inconstitucionalidad alegado por el activador c= onstitucional. <sp= an class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">14. En cuanto a la vulneraci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Consti= tuci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, por raz=C3=B3n de haberse = ;desconocido el art=C3=ADculo 2= 3 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, manifiesta en su Vis= ta &#x= a0;la re= presentante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico que, trat=C3=A1ndose de normas cons= agradas en los tratados o convenios internacionales suscritos por la Rep=C3=BAblica= de Panam=C3=A1 como normas de rango constitucional, hay que atender inmediatamente= al concepto denominado bloque de la constitucionalidad que ha sido = <s= pan class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">adoptado por el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia al interpreta= r nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n; indicando = que la norma cont= enida en la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos utilizada por el = doctor M= iguel Antonio Bernal, como norma constitucional infringida, es una norma qu= e consagra el derecho pol=C3=AD= tico de elegir y ser elegido. 15. La Procuradora General de la Naci=C3=B3n efect=C3= =BAa un an=C3=A1lisis del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n <sp= an class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Americana de Derec= hos Humanos, en relaci=C3=B3n con los art=C3=ADculos constitucionales 132 y= 135, llegando <sp= an class=3D"stl11" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">a la conclusi=C3=B3n que dicho art=C3=ADculo 23 es m=C3=A1s expl=C3= =ADcito en cuanto a los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los &= #xa0;80 ciudadanos, en relaci=C3=B3n con las generalidades= que sobre el tema contienen los textos constitucionales citados. As=C3=AD se expresa la representante del= Ministerio P=C3=BAblico: "En este sentido, si bien los art= =C3=ADculos 132 y 135 se refieren a los derechos de ciudadan=C3=ADa y al de= recho al sufragio, la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica no desarrolla e= stos derechos con la especificidad conforme han sido redactados en el art= =C3=ADculo 23 del Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9, por lo que me inclino a con= siderar que la norma utilizada por el activador constitucional tiene la </s= pan> jerarqu=C3=ADa de norma constitucional, en la medida que la misma fortal= ece los derechos m=C3=ADnimos contenidos en nuestra Constituci=C3=B3n= Pol=C3=ADtica en materia de derechos pol=C3=ADticos, adem=C3=A1s que la ju= risprudencia de nuestra M=C3=A1xima Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia reconoce que una norma convencional sobre derechos human= os con esas caracter=C3=ADsticas, integra la Constituci=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'; letter-spac= ing:normal"> = con fu= ndamento en la doctrina del bloque de la constitucionalidad. = Analizando el texto del art=C3= =ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, el mismo no= s permite ubicar, que la ley solamente puede reglamentar el ejercicio= de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, por razones de edad, nacionalidad, residen= cia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil= o mental, o por condena proferida por juez competente en proceso penal. </= span> Al ser estos los =C3=BAnicos criterios que permi= ten reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, la limitaci=C3= =B3n establecida en el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, o= stensiblemente sobrepasa los l=C3=ADmites que consagra la referida norma de= l Convenio = Intern= acional, en la medida que imposibilita el ejercicio del derecho pol=C3=ADti= co a ser elegido, a aquellos ciudadanos que han optado a participar en un proceso electoral= por v=C3=ADa de la libre postulaci=C3=B3n y no permit=C3=ADrsele ser postu= lado por un partido pol=C3=ADtico, lo que reviste una limitaci=C3=B3n= por raz=C3=B3n de sus ideas pol=C3=ADticas. = El =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rr= afo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral es contrario al art=C3= =ADculo 23 del Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9, ya que entra a reglamentar el = ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los ciudadanos paname=C3=B1os p= or raz=C3=B3n de sus ideas pol=C3=ADticas, lo cual = no es posible". = 16. Finalmente, c= oncluye la representante del Ministerio P=C3=BAblico se=C3=B1alando que, "a= las personas inscritas en los partidos pol=C3=ADticos en nuestro pa=C3=ADs, se le = ha dispensado un mejor trato a trav=C3=A9s de las disposiciones legales en materia electoral, versus aquel= las personas que no se encuentran inscritas en un partido pol=C3=ADtico, en lo que respecta al tema de las= postulaciones a los cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular, lo que obviamente plantea un = trato discriminatorio, el cual se ve reflejado en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rra= fo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral." = <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">17. Con base en sus argumentos expuestos considera este funcionario= que el activador constitucional ha logrado probar el cargo = de inconstitucionalidad, por estimar que, "el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del = art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral plantea una desigualdad y discriminaci= =C3=B3n contra aquellas personas que se postulan a los cargos de Alcalde o Represe= ntante de Corregimiento por libre postulaci=C3=B3n, con respecto <sp= an class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">a aquellas persona= s que son postuladas a dichos cargos, por los partidos pol=C3=ADticos." </s= pan> </s= pan>IV. CO= NSIDERACIONES Y DECISI=C3=93N DE LA CORTE </spa= n>18. Una vez examinada la presente co= ntroversia, y cumplidos los tr=C3=A1mites constitucionales y legales, el </= span> </= span>Pleno de l= a Corte Suprema de Justicia proceder=C3=A1 a efectuar las consideraciones q= ue sean de lugar, teniendo como base la iniciativa del recurrente, as=C3=AD como lo= s alegatos presentados y la opini=C3=B3n de la Procuradur=C3=ADa General de la Naci= =C3=B3n. 19. Sostiene el activador Constitucional que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo d= el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral infringe los art=C3=ADculos 1, 4 y 19 de la Constituci=C3= =B3n Nacional, porque al decir del mismo, se atenta contra el car=C3=A1cter democr=C3=A1tico del Gobierno = paname=C3=B1o; se vulnera el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3= =ADtica que obliga al Estado pa= name=C3=B1o a acatar las normas del Derecho Internacional, en referencia di= recta al art=C3=ADculo 23 de la= Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos de 1969, aprobada por la Rep= =C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 mediante Ley 15 de 28 de octubre de 1977, que se refiere= a los derechos pol=C3=ADticos del 81 = = ciudadano y se vulnera igualmente el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Carta Magna por= cuanto que, al indicarse en la norma impugnada que los candidatos principales o su= plentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n no puedan ser </s= pan>postulados = por partidos pol=C3=ADticos, se crea una discriminaci=C3=B3n en perjuicio d= e estos candidatos, al no poder ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos. = = 20. Al analizar= esta iniciativa de impugnaci=C3=B3n constitucional, trat=C3=A1ndose de un = tema trascendente como es el derecho de los paname=C3=B1os a= elegir y ser elegido (libertad pol=C3=ADtica por antonomasia), debe esta <= /span> Corporaci= =C3=B3n de Justicia apelar a los antecedentes hist=C3=B3ricos de estos dere= chos. As=C3=AD tenemos, que la Carta Magna de Inglaterra del siglo XI se reconoce c= omo el texto legal precursor de los derechos = individuales de todos los tiempos, por= lo que se le considera como el acta bautismal de los derechos <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">de la persona humana= en la civilizaci=C3=B3n occidental. Partiendo de este firme fundamento his= t=C3=B3rico constitucional, es que Panam=C3=A1 ha participad= o activamente en los movimientos pro derechos humanos = 0;que se han desarrollado en la= segunda mitad del siglo XX, incorporando el antiguo legado de la Carta </s= pan> </s= pan>Magna en materia de derechos civil= es aprobados durante la Revoluci=C3=B3n Inglesa del siglo XVII, la <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Declaraci=C3=B3n= de los Derechos del Hombre de los Estados Unidos de Am=C3=A9rica y la Revo= luci=C3=B3n Francesa. As=C3=AD mismo, ha aprobado y ratificado los Tratados y Conve= nciones sobre Derechos Humanos, que tienen jerarqu=C3=ADa de leyes de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica; sirviendo muchos de estos Tratados de verdaderos referentes <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">constitucionales, y as=C3=AD se ha consagrado por la doctrina del blo= que de constitucionalidad. 21. Menci=C3=B3n especial merece, la valiosa innovaci=C3= =B3n en cuanto a la base de protecci=C3=B3n de los derechos fundamentales derivada = del Acto Constitucional de 2004, que dispuso la modificaci=C3=B3n del art= =C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Re= p=C3=BAblica, que en su p=C3=A1rrafo segundo establece que los derechos y <= /span> garant=C3= =ADas consagrados por la Constituci=C3=B3n, deben considerarse como m=C3=AD= nimos y no excluyentes de otros que incidan sobre los derechos fundamentales y la d= ignidad de la persona. Se trata de un trascendente instrumento normativo que obliga= a los operadores de justicia, y en particular a la Corte Suprema de Justicia en su= condici=C3=B3n de Tribunal Constitucional, a sustentarse en los Tratados y= Convenciones sobre derechos humanos y los pronunciamientos = de la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos en esta mater= ia. 22. La Corte Suprema de Justicia, c=C3=BAspide de nuestr= o sistema jurisdiccional y =C3=BAnica int=C3=A9rprete de la = Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, debe cuidar y acrecentar celosamente este legad= o hist=C3=B3rico de defensa de los derechos individuales y p= ol=C3=ADticos. Por consiguiente, al disponerse en el art=C3=ADculo 1 de la = Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, que el Gobierno de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica de Panam=C3=A1 es democr=C3=A1tico y representativo, se est=C3=A1 </sp= an> haciendo alusi=C3=B3n a una de las clases de democracia seg=C3= =BAn la trilog=C3=ADa cl=C3=A1sica, la que habla de tres clases <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> de democracia: a) democracia directa o pura, b) democracia representati= va o indirecta y c) democracia semi directa. Teniendo en c= uenta que la democracia representativa es la que impera en Panam=C3=A1 y en= la mayo= r=C3=ADa de los pa=C3=ADses, y siendo que ella descansa en el principio de = la elecci=C3=B3n de los gobernantes, cualquiera disposici=C3=B3n que impida la part= icipaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos paname=C3=B1os en la elecci=C3=B3n libre <= /span> de los go= bernantes y en la posibilidad de ser elegidos, como lo hace el =C3=BAltimo = p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, vulnera el art=C3=ADc= ulo 1 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional, el que debe interpretarse no </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">como una norma= exclusivamente program=C3=A1tica, sino en relaci=C3=B3n con otras normas, = tanto = constitucionales como le= gales. 2= 3. Conviene en este aspecto, hacer algunas reflexiones sobre el concepto de= Democracia y por consiguiente, sobre el concepto de Estado Constitucional de Derec= ho. Para algunos, la pol=C3=ADtica es la ciencia del Estado, para otros, como el profesor de la Universida= d de Paris, Maurice Duverguer, es la 82 ciencia del poder en todas las colectividades humanas, en todos los grupo= s sociales y no s=C3=B3lo en el Estado. (DUVERGUER, Maurice= , "Instituciones Pol=C3=ADticas y Derecho Constitucional", Editorial Ariel,= S. A. Barcelona, 1984, p=C3=A1g. 428). De all=C3=AD, que la= ciencia Pol=C3=ADtica otorga la debida importancia al concepto <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> de Democracia y por tanto, al Estado Constitucional de Derecho. El auto= r franc=C3=A9s, Juan Jacobo Rousseau, en el siglo XVIII, fue= quien m=C3=A1s favoreci=C3=B3 la democracia como forma de gobierno y expus= o con claridad el concepto y las ventajas de la misma. Rouss= eau conceb=C3=ADa la democracia como la = entendieron los antiguos; como gobierno = directo del pueblo. Para Rousseau, democracia era "la intervenci=C3=B3n efectiva = y constante de todos los ciudadanos en la marcha del gobierno". <spa= n class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> 24. Dentro de la Democracia, seg=C3=BAn la concepci=C3=B3n de Rosseau, = es que se puede garantizar las libertades </p= >de los individuos= , como derechos inherentes a los mismos. Esta libertad es posible, siempre = que existan derechos individuales previamente establecidos y= las garant=C3=ADas para hacer valer los mismos, </s= pan>raz=C3=B3n por la que la Constituc= i=C3=B3n Nacional establece, en su parte dogm=C3=A1tica, los derechos indiv= iduales y los derechos sociales= . = 0;25. A = menudo se habla de dos tipos de libertad: la libertad civil y la libertad p= ol=C3=ADtica. La primera, se refiere al conjunto de derechos= que tienen los individuos para proteger su vida. La libertad pol=C3=ADtica= consist= e, por su parte, en los derechos del ciudadano frente al gobierno del Estad= o, para escoger y = fiscalizar a = sus gobernantes y para ser escogido como tales. Ambas libertades son igualm= ente &= #xa0;i= mportantes, ya que no podr=C3=ADa ejercerse una sin el ejercicio de la otra= . 26. Pero la libertad pol=C3=ADtica en una Democracia repre= sentativa, no puede tener vigencia sin el </p= >indispensable complemento de Elecciones = libres, consideradas a su vez, como esenciales para el fortalecimiento de la Democracia. En este aspecto= , juegan papel importante, tanto el Gobierno, los Partidos Pol=C3=ADticos y los ciu= dadanos en general. Estos =C3=BAltimos pueden participar en los procesos de= Elecciones, ya sea directamente o por intermedio de partido= s pol=C3=ADticos; por lo que, no se puede </p= >prohibir a =C3=A9= stos, postular para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular a cualquier ciudadano, = incluyendo a los que previamente, se hayan postulado como candidatos de libre postu= laci=C3=B3n. De ser as=C3=AD, al disponer el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3dig= o Electoral, que los partidos pol=C3=ADticos s=C3=B3lo pueden postular </sp= an> </sp= an>candidatos d= entro de sus miembros o a otras personas siempre que no est=C3=A9n postulad= os; se estar=C3=ADa impidiendo a los candidatos de libre pos= tulaci=C3=B3n, su participaci=C3=B3n plena en los torneos electorales, </sp= an> base de la Democracia representativa, la que se exalta en el art= =C3=ADculo 1 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, que &= #xa0;e= stima vulnerado, esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia, por parte de la disposi= ci=C3=B3n impugnada. 27. Trat=C3=A1ndose de la solicitud del= activador constitucional, para que se declare la inconstitucionalidad </sp= an> del =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3di= go Electoral, por violar el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Constituci=C3=B3n </span= > <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Pol=C3=ADtica, el Pleno de la Corte se permite las siguientes cons= ideraciones: El proceso electoral o sufragio, </span= >constituye el medio para el escogimie= nto de la mayor=C3=ADa de los cargos p=C3=BAblicos, particularmente, dentro= = ;del =C3=93rgano Ejecutivo, el = =C3=93rgano Legislativo, los Consejos Municipales y otros puestos de elecci= =C3=B3n = popular. La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam= =C3=A1, al referirse al sufragio, expresa en su </sp= an>art=C3=ADculo 135 que el mismo es u= n derecho y un deber de todos los ciudadanos. Ahora bien, para ejercer </sp= an> </sp= an>este derecho= , la democracia representativa cuenta con la existencia de partidos pol=C3= =ADticos, los cuales son, seg=C3=BAn la doctrina, asociaciones pol=C3=ADticas de ci= udadanos, que se organizan y act=C3=BAan como una unidad pol=C3=ADtica, mediante un programa o plataforma = ideol=C3=B3gica af=C3=ADn, con el prop=C3=B3sito de alcanzar el <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = poder pol=C3=ADtico, para contribuir a l= a realizaci=C3=B3n de los fines del Estado. De all=C3=AD, que los mismos no= = ;pueden = existir sin la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos, debiendo reflejar los = primeros, los ideales de las 83 mayor= =C3=ADas. En la doctrina democr=C3=A1tica, los partidos pol=C3=ADticos no p= ueden existir sobre la base de ning=C3=BAn tipo de exclusi=C3=B3n, ya sea de edad, condici=C3=B3n racial, = confesi=C3=B3n religiosa, o clase social de sus miembros. En este contexto es que d= ebe analizarse el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3= =B3digo Electoral, sobre todo, a la luz de los art=C3=ADculos 1 y 19 de la Carta Ma= gna y del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, en concordancia con el Art= =C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica. 28. A partir de la reforma cons= titucional de 1983, se incorporaron en la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica v= arias disposiciones sobre la existencia y desarrollo de los = partidos pol=C3=ADticos, lo que debe a su vez, guardar &= #xa0;r= elaci=C3=B3n y concordancia con el art=C3=ADculo 1 del texto constitucional= , en cuanto a la existencia de un Gobierno democr=C3=A1tico representativo. Por tan= to, al indicarse en el art=C3=ADculo 138 de la Carta fundamental <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >que "los partidos pol=C3=ADticos expresa= n el pluralismo pol=C3=ADtico, concurren a la formaci=C3=B3n y manifestaci= =C3=B3n de la voluntad popular = y son instrumentos fundamentales para la participaci=C3=B3n", aclara y expr= esa &#= xa0;igua= lmente que, la actuaci=C3=B3n de dichos partidos pol=C3=ADticos debe llevar= se a cabo, "sin perjuicio de la postulaci=C3=B3n libre, en = la forma prevista en la Constituci=C3=B3n y la Ley". Tal disposici=C3=B3n e= xcluye cualquier tipo de discriminaci=C3=B3n en relaci=C3=B3n con los candidatos de= libre postulaci=C3=B3n. Por consiguiente, estima el Pleno que, al indicarse en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rraf= o del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral que, "los candidatos </sp= an> </sp= an>principales o suplentes por libre p= ostulaci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos"= , se &= #xa0;v= ulnera igualmente, el art=C3=ADculo 19 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtic= a, que a la letra dice: "No habr=C3=A1 fueros o </sp= an>privilegios ni discriminaci=C3=B3n = por raz=C3=B3n de raza, nacimiento, discapacidad, clase social, sexo, relig= i=C3=B3n o ideas pol=C3=ADticas". La discriminaci=C3=B3n en este caso se da evident= emente por razones de ideas pol=C3=ADticas, en </spa= n>contra de los= candidatos principales o suplentes por libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> 29. Por otro lado, = el derecho a elegir y ser elegido, debe ser considerado como un derecho hum= ano, &= #xa0;t= al como lo indica el art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de De= rechos Humanos, el cual, considera esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia, requiere una = efectiva tutela constitucional. De este aspecto se han ocupado numerosos autores = latinoamericanos, como el argentino N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3=BCes y el prof= esor de la Universidad Central de Venezuela, Allan Brewer- C= ar=C3=ADas. Este =C3=BAltimo sostiene que, en el proceso &= #xa0;d= e garantizar la supremac=C3=ADa de la Constituci=C3=B3n y, mediante ella, l= a efectiva vigencia de los derechos humanos, los tribunales = constitucionales de Am=C3=A9rica Latina, han tenido que recurrir no s=C3=B3= lo a los principios y valores establecidos o derivados del texto de las Constitucio= nes, sino a lo que se dispone en los Tratados internacionales sobre derechos humano= s. Sostiene este autor, que una de las = caracter=C3=ADsti= cas m=C3=A1s destacadas del Derecho de los derechos humanos en Am=C3=A9rica= Latina, es la progresiva aplicaci=C3=B3n por los tribunal= es constitucionales, de los instrumentos internacionales de = derechos humanos, a los efectos de su protecci=C3=B3n en el orden interno. = 30. En primer lugar, seg=C3=BAn el autor citado, se destaca = la t=C3=A9cnica de las llamadas cl=C3=A1usulas abiertas sobre derechos humanos incorporadas en las Constituciones latinoamericanas, las= cuales tienen su origen remoto en la enmienda IX de la Constituci=C3=B3n de los Es= tados Unidos de Am=C3=A9rica (1791), que dispuso: "La enumeraci=C3=B3n de ciertos d= erechos en la Constituci=C3=B3n no debe construirse como la negaci=C3=B3n o= desecho= de otros que el pueblo conserva". Con ello se buscaba, seg=C3=BAn el autor= citado, confirmar que la lista= de los derechos constitucionales no termina en aquellos expresamente decla= rados y enumerados en los textos constitucionales. Esta concepci=C3=B3n se incorpor= =C3=B3, luego de la reforma constitucional de </span= >2004, en el se= gundo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 17 de nuestra Carta Magna, al disponer= se que, "los derechos y garant=C3=ADas que consagra esta Constituci=C3=B3n, deben c= onsiderarse como m=C3=ADnimo y no excluyentes de otros que incidan sobre los derech= os fundamentales y la dignidad de la persona". </spa= n>84 31. La segunda t=C3=A9cnica interpretativa, al decir del autor = Allan Brewer-Car=C3=ADas, ha conducido a los tribunales constitucionales a aplicar los Tratados internacio= nales en el =C3=A1mbito interno, para identificar derechos constitucionales no desa= rrollados en los textos constitucionales, y se deriva de la aplicaci=C3=B3n= de las llamadas cl=C3=A1usulas complementarias de las cl=C3= =A1usulas abiertas, conforme a las cuales, todos los = ;derecho= s constitucionales son directamente aplicables, independientemente de su re= gulaci=C3=B3n legislativa o desarrollo mediante leyes reglam= entarias, lo que ha permitido la aplicaci=C3=B3n directa de aqu=C3=A9llos. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>32. La tercera t= =C3=A9cnica interpretativa, sostiene el autor que venimos comentando, ha pe= rmitido a los tribunales constitucionales la aplicaci=C3=B3n directa de los Tratado= s internacionales en materia de derechos humanos, ampliando progresivamente el elen= co de los derechos humanos protegidos en las = Constituciones, lo que se deriva del p= ropio texto de las Constituciones, por el reconocimiento expreso <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >de determinado ra= ngo normativo a los referidos Tratados; concluyendo que, ciertas Constituci= ones lat= inoamericanas han otorgado rango supraconstitucional a los derechos declara= dos en instrumentos internacion= ales, en particular en los Tratados ratificados por los Estados. (BREWER-CA= R=C3=8DAS, Allan <= span class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">R., "Nuevas reflexiones sobre el papel de los tribunales constituc= ionales en la consolidaci=C3=B3n del Estado <= /p>democr=C3=A1tico= de derecho: defensa de la constituci=C3=B3n, control del poder y protecci= =C3=B3n de los derechos humanos", Anuario de Derecho Constit= ucional Latinoamericano, 2007, 13er a=C3=B1o, Tomo I, Fundaci=C3=B3n </span= > <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">Konrad-Adenauer-Stiftung, p=C3=A1gs. 80- 85- 86- 88). <span= class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 33. El criterio ante= rior es aplicado en Panam=C3=A1 por v=C3=ADa jurisprudencial, bajo el influ= jo de la doctrina del bloque de constitucionalidad, a partir de 1990, pero s=C3=B3l= o en relaci=C3=B3n con los Convenios internacionales = ;sobre derechos humanos, a los = cuales ha adherido la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1. El bloque de <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>constitucionalida= d, seg=C3=BAn el Doctor Arturo Hoyos, en su obra "La interpretaci=C3=B3n co= nstitucional", "es el conjunto normativo de jerarqu=C3=ADa constitucional que la Co= rte Suprema de Justicia ha empleado para emitir juicio sobre la constitucionalidad de las leyes y de otros= actos sujetos al control judicial de esa instituci=C3=B3n". (HOYOS, Arturo, "La interpretaci=C3=B3n const= itucional", Editorial Temis, Santa Fe de Bogot=C3=A1-Colombia, 1998, p=C3=A1g. 98). 34. En la Sentencia de 25 de o= ctubre de 1996, bajo la ponencia del Magistrado Rogelio A. F=C3=A1brega Z.,= el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia, en relaci=C3=B3n = con la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos = Humanos y su ob= servancia a la luz de la doctrina del bloque de Constitucionalidad se=C3=B1= al=C3=B3 que: ... "el art=C3=ADculo 8 de la Convenci=C3=B3n = Americana de Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9) ha sido <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> incorporado por este= Pleno al bloque de constitucionalidad, sirviendo, por tanto, como par=C3= =A1metro para enjuiciar el cumplimiento, por las autoridades judiciales, de la gara= nt=C3=ADa del debido proceso, como lo hizo en la sentencia de constitucionalidad de= 19 de marzo de 1993". 35. La constitucionalizaci=C3=B3n de los derechos humanos se= hizo efectiva, al incorporarse el segundo </= p>p=C3=A1rrafo al a= rt=C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, el cual se=C3=B1ala = que los derechos y garant=C3=ADas que consagra la Constituci=C3=B3n deben considera= rse como m=C3=ADnimos y no excluyentes de otros que guarden relaci=C3=B3n con derec= hos fundamentales y la dignidad de la persona. Esta adici=C3=B3n al art=C3= =ADculo 17 citado, debe entenderse como una alusi=C3=B3n directa a la tutela de los= derechos humanos. Se consolid=C3=B3 de esta manera, lo que se conoce como la const= itucionalizaci=C3=B3n de la internacionalizaci=C3=B3n de los derechos </spa= n> = humanos, cuya g=C3=A9nesis en Panam=C3=A1 se encuentra en la doct= rina del bloque de constitucionalidad. = 85= 36. Habida cuenta de la constitucionalizaci= =C3=B3n de los derechos humanos internacionales, debe = 0;considerarse la incorporaci= =C3=B3n de otros Convenios internacionales sobre derechos humanos, en adici= =C3=B3n = a la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos (Pacto de San Jos=C3= =A9), tales como: Convenci=C3=B3n para la Prevenci=C3=B3n y = la Sanci=C3=B3n del Delito de Genocidio, aprobada mediante Ley No. 32 de 5 = de dicie= mbre de 1949; Convenci=C3=B3n Internacional sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de to= das las formas de = Discriminaci= =C3=B3n Racial, aprobada mediante Ley No. 49 de 2 de febrero de 1967; Pacto= Internacional <sp= an class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">de Derechos Econ=C3=B3micos, Sociales y Culturales, aprobado mediant= e Ley No. 13 de 27 de octubre de 1976; Pacto Internacional de Derechos Civiles y Po= l=C3=ADticos, aprobado mediante Ley No. 14 de 28 de octubre de 1976; Protocolo Facultativo del Pacto Inter= nacional de Derechos Civiles y Pol=C3=ADticos, aprobado mediante Ley No. 15 de 28 d= e octubre de 1976; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre la Imprescriptibilidad de <= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">los Crimines de = Guerra y de los Cr=C3=ADmenes de Lesa Humanidad, aprobada mediante Ley No. = 56 de 20 de diciembre de 2006; = Convenci=C3=B3n Internacional sobre la Represi=C3=B3n y el Castigo del Crim= en del A= partheid, aprobada mediante Ley No. 8 de 26 de octubre de 1976; Convenci=C3= =B3n sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas las formas de Disc= riminaci=C3=B3n Contra la Mujer, aprobada mediante Ley No. 4 de 22 de mayo = de 1981; Convenci=C3=B3n contra la Tortura y otros Tratos o = Penas Crueles Inhumanos o Degradantes, = aprobada mediante= Ley No. 5 de 16 de junio de 1987; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana para Prev= enir y Sancionar la Tortura, aprobada mediante Ley No. 12 de= 18 de junio de 1991; Protocolo Adicional a la </spa= n>Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Dere= chos Humanos en materia de Derechos Econ=C3=B3micos, Sociales y <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = Culturales, (Prot= ocolo de San Salvador), aprobado mediante Ley No. 21 de 22 de octubre de 19= 92; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o, aproba= da mediante Ley No. 15 de 6 de noviembre de 1990; </= span>Segundo Protocolo 37. Facultativo del Pac= to Internacional sobre Derechos Civiles y Pol=C3=ADticos dirigido a la Abol= ici=C3=B3n de la Pena de Muerte, aprobado mediante Ley No. 23 de 17 de noviembre de= 1992; Protocolo a la Convenci= =C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos Relativo a la Abolici=C3=B3n de la= Pena de Muerte, <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">aprobado mediante Ley No. 13 de 18 de junio de 1991; Convenio Cons= titutivo del Fondo para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Ind=C3= =ADgenas de Am=C3=A9rica Latina y El Caribe, aprobado mediante Ley No. 27 <= /span> de 13 de = diciembre de 1993; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana sobre Desaparici=C3=B3n F= orzada de Personas, aprobado me= diante Ley No. 32 de 28 de junio de 1995; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana pa= ra Prevenir, <span= class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">Sancionar y Erradicar la Violencia Contra la Mujer (Convenci=C3=B3n de= Belem Do Para), aprobada mediante Ley No. 12 de 20 de abril= de 1995; Convenci=C3=B3n Interamericana para la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas = las form= as de Discriminaci=C3=B3n contra las personas con Discapacidad, aprobada me= diante Ley No. 3 de 10 de enero de 2001; Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3= n sobre la Eliminaci=C3=B3n de todas las formas </sp= an>de Discrimin= aci=C3=B3n contra la Mujer, aprobado mediante Ley No. 17 de 28 de marzo de = 2001; Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o= Relativo a la Venta de Ni=C3=B1os, la Prostituci=C3=B3n Infantil y la Utilizaci=C3=B3n de Ni=C3=B1os en= la Pornograf=C3=ADa, aprobado mediante Ley No. 47 de 13 de diciembre de 2000; Prot= ocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos del Ni=C3=B1o Re= lativo a la Participaci=C3=B3n de Ni=C3=B1os en los Conflict= os Armados, aprobado mediante Ley No. 48 de 13 de </= span>diciembre = de 2000; Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos de las Personas con Discapacida= d y el Protocolo Facultativo de la Convenci=C3=B3n sobre los Derechos de las Person= as con Discapacidad, aprobado m= ediante Ley No. 25 de 10 de julio de 2007. 38. Mediante sostenida jurisprudencia la= Corte Suprema de Justicia ha incorporado los Convenios &= #xa0;s= obre derechos humanos al bloque de constitucionalidad. Esta pr=C3=A9dica ju= risprudencial se reafirma con la Sentencia del Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justici= a de fecha 21 de agosto de 2008, bajo la ponencia del Magistrado Jer=C3=B3nimo Mej= =C3=ADa. En la parte pertinente de esta Sentencia se dice lo siguiente: </s= pan> 86 = "En efecto, la Constituci=C3=B3n reconoce (no otorga) una serie de= derechos fundamentales que, incluso, se encuentran ampliados <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">y compl= ementados en Convenciones Internacionales sobre derechos humanos. La vigenc= ia de tales derechos, que solo tiene lugar cuando existe un sistema de protecci=C3=B3n judic= ial que los tutele efectivamente, es lo que permite que la normatividad </s= pan>&#= xa0;de la constituci=C3= =B3n tenga vigencia, con lo cual se asegura el mantenimiento de la supremac= =C3=ADa constitucional y se preserva el Estado de Derecho. El sistema de protecci=C3=B3n no consiste exclusi= vamente en la incorporaci=C3=B3n al ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico de normas di= rigidas a <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'">garanti= zar el reconocimiento y la vigencia de los derechos fundamentales. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'UPJMRC+Garamond Italic'"> <= /span>La tutela judicial efecti= va se consigue cuando se logra el reconocimiento de los derechos fundamenta= les establecidos en la Constituci=C3=B3n, en los tratados y convenciones internacionales sob= re derechos humanos vigentes en Panam=C3=A1 y en las leyes, <= /p>de manera que los mismos puedan = ser restaurados cuando han sido lesionado. Por ello, un sistema de pr= otecci=C3=B3n judicial de derechos fundamentales que no sea capaz de tutela= rlos efectivamente hace ilusorios tales dere= chos y est=C3=A1 lejos de contribuir a la consolidaci=C3=B3n y preservaci= =C3=B3n de un verdadero Estado de Derecho. </= span>Finalmente, es importante = se=C3=B1alar que los derechos fundamentales tutelables a trav=C3=A9s de un = amparo pueden estar reconocidos en la Constituci=C3=B3n, en los Trata= dos y Convenios Internacionales sobre derechos humanos vigentes en Panam=C3= =A1 o en la ley, tal y como sabiamente lo establece el art=C3=ADculo = 25 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana sobre Derechos Humanos"= . 39. No= cabe la menor duda, que la Sentencia citada reitera la equiparaci=C3=B3n c= onstitucional que se otorga por= esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia a los Convenios Internacionales sobre de= rechos humanos, en atenci=C3=B3n al bloque de constitucionalidad. Se demuestra tamb= i=C3=A9n, que el Derecho Internacional deja <= /p>espacio y margen de apreciaci=C3=B3n a = los Tribunales Nacionales. As=C3=AD se desprende de nuevas teor=C3=ADas en = el &#x= a0;=C3=A1mbito del Derecho Cons= titucional, tales como la de la concepci=C3=B3n de la existencia de una </s= pan> </s= pan>Constituci= =C3=B3n viviente y cambiante, aspecto que plante=C3=B3 en su momento el con= stitucionalista paname=C3=B1o, doctor Jos=C3=A9 Dolores Mos= cote y en la actualidad, el argentino doctor N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3=BCes,= catedr= =C3=A1tico de Derecho Constitucional de la Universidad de Buenos Aires y Pr= esidente del Instituto Iberoamericano de Derecho Procesal Constitucional, quien sos= tiene que debe exigirse que el cambio social tenga consenso = y que responda a un fuerte ingrediente de justicia. Esto lo explica el doct= or Sag= =C3=BCes en base a la teor=C3=ADa de la progresividad, la que, al decir del= mismo, debe ser vista de manera objetiva, pero atendiendo el cumplimiento de direc= trices del Derecho Internacional de los Derechos </s= pan>Humanos. (P= onencia presentada en el XVII Encuentro del Presidentes y Magistrados de Tr= ibunales y Salas Constitucionales de Am=C3=A9rica Latina, celebrado en Panam=C3=A1,= del 3 al 8 de octubre de 2010, organizado por la Fundaci=C3=B3n Konrad Adenauer y la Corte Suprema de Jus= ticia de Panam=C3=A1). 40. Esta= s nuevas teor=C3=ADas han dado surgimiento al concepto de cultura constituc= ional, la que es definida por P= eter Haberle como: "una suma de actitudes, ideas, experiencias subjetivas, = valores y expectativas, y de la= s correspondientes acciones objetivas, tanto en la esfera personal del ciud= adano como en la de sus asociac= iones, los =C3=B3rganos estatales y cualesquiera otros relacionados con la = constituci=C3=B3n" (HABERLE, Peter, "Teor=C3=ADa de la constituci=C3=B3n como cienc= ia de la cultura, Madrid: Tecnos, 2000, pp. <= /p>36 ss). A partir= del concepto de cultura constitucional, el doctor N=C3=A9stor Pedro Sag=C3= =BCes estima que es posible distinguir tres escenarios: "a) = la cultura constitucional del constituyente, b) la cultura c= onstitucional de los operadores de la constituci=C3=B3n, y c) la cultura co= nstitucional de la sociedad". (SAG=C3=9CES, N=C3=A9stor Pedro, "Cultura constitucio= nal y desconstitucionalizaci=C3=B3n", Anuario de Derecho Constitucional Latinoamericano, Fundaci=C3=B3n Ko= nrad Adenauer, a=C3=B1o XVI, Montevideo, 2010, p=C3=A1g. 99). <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">41. Existe en la Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3= =A1, una acumulaci=C3=B3n de factores que ha influido en la toma de = = conciencia, par= a tutelar derechos acordes con las demandas de la sociedad. A estas exigenc= ias ha r= espondido gradualmente el constituyente paname=C3=B1o, lo que se ha refleja= do en los operadores 87 </span= >constitucional= es, frente a una sociedad, cuyas reclamaciones de justicia constitucional h= a tenido una trayectoria perfectamente definida. Este nuevo entorno constitucional = tiene como marco, entre otros hechos, los siguientes: la reforma constitucional de = 1983, que defini=C3=B3 los l=C3=ADmites de la declaraci=C3=B3n de <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">"estado de urgencia" o suspensi=C3=B3n de garant=C3=ADas constitucion= ales, e incorpor=C3=B3 un t=C3=ADtulo sobre derechos = ;sociales; la reforma constituc= ional de 2004 que ampli=C3=B3 la protecci=C3=B3n respecto de otros derechos= , al &= #xa0;a= dicionar el art=C3=ADculo 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica; y elev= =C3=B3 a rango constitucional el Recurso de Habeas <= /span>Data, etc= . Al mismo tiempo, ha coexistido una jurisprudencia cada vez m=C3=A1s unifo= rme en materia de Habeas Corpus, Amparo de Garant=C3=ADas Co= nstitucionales y Advertencias de Inconstitucionalidad, que i= ncluye reducci=C3=B3n de tiempo de tramitaci=C3=B3n mediante plazos comunes= para lectura, nuevos par=C3=A1metros y modalidades, etc. 42. As=C3=AD las cosas, esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justici= a, no puede menos que arribar a la conclusi=C3=B3n que el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo = del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral es violatorio del art=C3=AD= culo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica, que destaca = la primac=C3=ADa del Derecho Internacional sobre el Derecho Interno, por ra= z=C3=B3n que el art=C3=ADculo impugnado desconoce e infringe el art=C3=ADculo 23 de= la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, conocida como Pacto de San Jos=C3=A9; ya que, el art=C3= =ADculo 23 de dicha Convenci=C3=B3n postula el derecho de todos los ciudadanos de "participar en la direcc= i=C3=B3n de los asuntos p=C3=BAblicos, directamente o por medio de representantes libremente elegidos", ad= em=C3=A1s del derecho de "elegir y ser elegidos en elecciones peri=C3=B3dicas aut= =C3=A9nticas". Este mismo art=C3=ADculo de la Convenci=C3=B3n que citamos, = se=C3=B1ala que la Ley puede reglamentar este importante derecho humano, pero, excl= usivamente "por razones de edad, nacionalidad, residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil o men= tal, o condena, por juez competente, en proceso penal". Como se puede apreciar, no = puede una Ley de un Estado parte de esta Convenci=C3=B3n, po= ner condiciones que excluyan la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos por ra= zones po= l=C3=ADticas o de otro tipo, no se=C3=B1alados en la propia Convenci=C3=B3n= , como lo ha hecho el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >43. El Comit=C3=A9 de Derechos Humanos a= dopt=C3=B3 en 1996 su Observaci=C3=B3n General N=C2=B0 25 sobre los = = derechos pol=C3= =ADticos, en la cual estableci=C3=B3 algunos criterios generales tendiente = a determinar cu=C3=A1ndo puede permitirse restricciones al derecho de votar. Se se= =C3=B1al=C3=B3 en la Observaci=C3=B3n General N=C2=B0 25 que, <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">debe considerarse no s=C3=B3lo la legalidad = de la restricci=C3=B3n que se imponga en el ejercicio de elegir y ser </spa= n> </spa= n>elegido, sino= tambi=C3=A9n atender a criterios de razonabilidad; estim=C3=A1ndose, por v= =C3=ADa de ejemplo, como irrazonables y violatorios de la Co= nvenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos, incluir aspectos como: = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">la discapacidad= f=C3=ADsica, la capacidad para leer y escribir, el nivel de instrucci=C3= =B3n, la situaci=C3=B3n econ=C3=B3mica y la afiliaci=C3=B3n partidaria. Por otro = lado, se analiz=C3=B3 el derecho de los ciudadanos a presentarse como </spa= n> = candidatos a cargos de elecci=C3=B3n, indic=C3=A1ndose que, "nadi= e debe ser privado de este derecho por la </p= >imposici=C3=B3n de requisitos irrazonabl= es o de car=C3=A1cter discriminatorio, como el nivel de instrucci=C3=B3n, e= l = 0;lugar de residencia o la desc= endencia, o a causa de su afiliaci=C3=B3n pol=C3=ADtica". Se considera tamb= i=C3=A9n que la <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">afiliaci=C3=B3n= a un partido pol=C3=ADtico, y menos a=C3=BAn a un partido determinado, no = debe ser requisito para presentarse como candidato, ni obst=C3=A1culo o la presenta= ci=C3=B3n de una candidatura. 44. La Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos ha da= do el justo valor e importancia a los partidos pol=C3=ADticos, lo cual es compartid= o por el Pleno de esta Corporaci=C3=B3n; sin embargo, tratando de armonizar= criterios, sin desmerecer la importancia de los partidos po= l=C3=ADticos, considera la Corte Interamericana de <= /span>Derechos = Humanos, que se puede garantizar la participaci=C3=B3n de los ciudadanos no= inscritos en los mismos. La Comisi=C3=B3n Interamericana de= Derechos Humanos en un an=C3=A1lisis realizado en 1998 expres=C3=B3 </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">lo siguiente: = = 88 "Hasta ahor= a no ha sido posible encontrar (=E2=80=A6) una f=C3=B3rmula que garantice l= a estabilidad y consolidaci=C3=B3n del sistema de &= #xa0;partidos, que res= ulte compatible con la garant=C3=ADa constitucional que tienen los ciudadan= os para ser votados para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular, sin tener q= ue hacerlo obligadamente bajo las siglas de alg=C3=BAn partido pol=C3=ADtic= o". 45. Sobre este mismo aspecto recomend=C3=B3 que se "(=E2=80=A6= ) adopten las medidas necesarias para que la reglamentaci=C3=B3n del derecho de votar y= ser votado contemple el acceso m=C3=A1s amplio y participativo <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> posible de los candidatos al proceso electoral, como elemento para la c= onsolidaci=C3=B3n de la democracia." ("Derecho Internacional de los Derechos Humano= s, normativa, jurisprudencia y doctrina de los sistemas universal e interamericano)= ", Oficina Regional para Am=C3=A9rica Latina y el Caribe del Alto <s= pan class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">Comisionado de las Naciones Unidas para los Derechos Humanos", p=C3= =A1gs. 751, 756 y 757). 46. Para analizar la controversia, en cuanto a la posible v= iolaci=C3=B3n, por parte del =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C= =C3=B3digo Electoral, del art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana = de Derechos Humanos de 1969, que es un Tratado Internacional aprobado por la Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1, debe analizarse la relaci=C3=B3n entre el Derecho Internac= ional y el Derecho Interno. Sabido es, que, en determinados casos, <= span class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">una disposici=C3= =B3n legal dictada por un Estado puede encontrarse en contraposici=C3=B3n c= on un Tratado <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">internacional, si= endo como es, adem=C3=A1s, una de las fuentes del Derecho Internacional. Es= aqu=C3=AD donde <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">se plantea cu= =C3=A1l es la norma que ha de ser aplicada en caso de conflicto. La controv= ersia gira en torno a si el Der= echo interno y el Derecho internacional se consideran dos sistemas jur=C3= =ADdicos diferentes, o si contr= ario a ello, existe un s=C3=B3lo sistema u orden jur=C3=ADdico. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = 47. Reviste singu= lar importancia el determinar la norma que debe aplicarse en caso de existi= r discre= pancia o contradicci=C3=B3n entre la norma interna de un Estado y la norma = internacional. Existen dos teor=C3=ADas para explicar esta situaci=C3=B3n, conocida= s como la teor=C3=ADa dualista y la teor=C3=ADa monista. Seg=C3=BAn el </sp= an> autor colombiano Enrique Gaviria Li=C3=A9vano, la teor=C3=ADa du= alista fue expuesta principalmente por = Heinrich Triepel = y Dionisio Anzilotti, y la misma sostiene que el Derecho interno y el Derec= ho internacional son dos sistemas jur=C3=ADdicos independien= tes, o sea, dos =C3=B3rdenes jur=C3=ADdicos separados, tanto en su origen como en s= u campo de aplicaci=C3=B3n; en virtud que, mientras el Derecho interno est= =C3=A1 destinado a reglar las r= elaciones de los individuos de un mismo Estado, el Derecho internacional, <= /span> <= /span>regula exclusivamente las relaci= ones entre Estados. Por su parte, seg=C3=BAn la Teor=C3=ADa monista, el Der= echo &= #xa0;i= nternacional y el Derecho interno forman un solo sistema jur=C3=ADdico con = dos modalidades: una que sostiene la supremac=C3=ADa del Derecho internacional sobr= e el Derecho interno, liderada por Hans Kelsen, y otra, que consagra la superiorida= d del Derecho interno sobre el Derecho internacional, expuesta por <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Georg Jellinek, (GAVIRIA LI=C3=89VANO, Enrique, "Derecho Internacion= al P=C3=BAblico", Editorial Temis, S.A., tercera edici=C3=B3n, Bogot=C3=A1-Colombia= , 1988, p=C3=A1gs. 12-13). 48. = No obstante lo anterior, consideramos, tal como afirma el Autor colombiano = Enrique Gaviria <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Li=C3=A9vano, q= ue no se puede afirmar la existencia de ordenes jur=C3=ADdicos separados e = independientes, ya que el Derec= ho interno y el internacional son interdependientes. La pr=C3=A1ctica demue= stra que hay una <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">relaci=C3=B3n = muy estrecha, de vasos comunicantes, entre ambos sistemas. Se dice que, un = Estado no puede <s= pan class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal">establecer un ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico interno violando las norma= s internacionales. De acuerdo con las consideraciones antes = expuestas, los Estados elaboran sus ordenamientos constitucionales y legale= s, teniendo presente la primac=C3=ADa del Derecho Internacio= nal. As=C3=AD lo confirma el Art=C3=ADculo 27 de la = Convenci= =C3=B3n de Viena de 1969 sobre el Derecho sobre de los Tratados, que se ref= iere al derecho interno y la observancia de los Tratados, el cual se=C3=B1ala que, = "una parte no podr=C3=A1 invocar las disposiciones de su derecho interno como justificaci=C3=B3n del inc= umplimiento de un tratado". 89 = ;49. La primac=C3=ADa del Derec= ho Internacional se evidencia igualmente en la Constituci=C3=B3n Nacional d= e = 0;Panam= =C3=A1 al se=C3=B1alar el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la misma que, "La Rep=C3=BAbli= ca de Panam=C3=A1 acata las normas del = Derecho Internacional". Con base a lo an= terior, debe interpretarse el alcance del art=C3=ADculo 23 de <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humano= s, teniendo adem=C3=A1s en cuenta, el principio "pro homine", principio conforme al cual, al momento de in= terpretar una norma internacional (art=C3=ADculo 23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos) e= n relaci=C3=B3n con una norma nacional (=C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo = 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral), debe aplicarse la norma que mejor tutele lo= s derechos humanos de los individuos. En este mismo orden de ideas, ha de aplicarse= la norma "Pacta Sunt Servanda"= , o Principio de la Santidad de los Tratados, que establece que los Tratado= s internacionales = una vez ratif= icados deben cumplirse de buena fe por los Estados signatarios, tal como lo= consagra el <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">art=C3=ADculo 26 d= e la Convenci=C3=B3n de Viena de 1969 sobre el Derecho de los Tratados. </s= pan> </s= pan>50. Al apro= barse esta Convenci=C3=B3n, los Estados partes se comprometieron a respetar= los derechos y libertades reconocidos en dicha Convenci=C3= =B3n, y a garantizar el pleno ejercicio de los derechos en ella <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> contemplados. As=C3=AD lo indica el art=C3=ADculo 1, cuya redacci=C3=B3= n es la siguiente: "Art=C3=ADculo pr= imero. Obligaci=C3=B3n de respetar los derechos. 1. Los Estados Partes en e= sta Convenci=C3=B3n se comprometen a <= /p>respetar = los derechos y libertades reconocidos en ella y a garantizar su libre y ple= no ejercicio a toda persona que est=C3=A9 sujeta &#= xa0;a su jurisdicci=C3= =B3n=E2=80=A6" (Destaca el Pleno). = 51. Por consiguiente, siendo el= Derecho a elegir y ser elegido un derecho humano, al decir del art=C3=ADcu= lo &#x= a0;23 de la Convenci=C3=B3n ant= es citada, cualquier ley Nacional que regule materias semejantes, debe tene= r = 0;en cuenta lo dispuesto en est= e art=C3=ADculo. En caso contrario, como ha ocurrido con el =C3=BAltimo p= =C3=A1rrafo del <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">art=C3=ADculo 2= 57 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, tal norma resulta contraria a la Constituci= =C3=B3n Nacional, = particularmente, al art=C3=ADculo 4 de dicha Norma Suprema. As=C3= =AD lo ha considerado tambi=C3=A9n el funcionario </= span>del Minist= erio P=C3=BAblico, al solicitar que se declare que es inconstitucional el = =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo </= p>257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </= p>52. Con fundament= o en las consideraciones expuestas, se concluye que se ha producido la tran= sgresi=C3=B3n constitucional alegada, y, por consiguiente, as=C3=AD ha de pronuncia= rse esta Corporaci=C3=B3n de Justicia. 53. En consecuencia, la Corte Suprema de J= usticia, PLENO, administrando justicia en nombre de la &= #xa0;R= ep=C3=BAblica y por autoridad de la Ley, DECLARA QUE ES INCONSTITUCIONAL el= =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>54. Notif=C3=ADquese. OYD=C3=89N ORTEGA DUR=C3= =81N GABRIEL E. FERN=C3=81NDEZ M. =E2=80=94 VICTOR L. BENAVIDES P. </spa= n>=E2=80=94 <= /span>HERN=C3=81N A. DE LE=C3=93N <= /p>BATISTA =E2=80=94 HARRY ALBERTO D=C3=8DAZ GONZ=C3= =81LEZ =E2=80=94 EFR=C3=89N C. TELLO C. =E2=80=94 LUIS MARIO = CARRASCO M. =E2=80=94 HARLEY J. MITCHELL D. =E2=80=94 ABEL AUGUSTO ZAMORAN= O = 0;YANIXSA Y. YUEN C. (Secretari= o) &#x= a0;90 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGg= oAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAAD= sQBD6fLggAAB/9JREFUeJztzrEJwgAUBcD3xdZOJ3ASR3EFG8EZ3MQt0jtNAhYSdAZF+QTuJrgE= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAA+LnqDgDNjsNuXXWq17ztrsBHavV4jvMlt8PUXQEAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAI= B/qe7AQuyTnJNsuiMs3j3JtTsBAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAfOkN7v0MA5fjNVkAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" = width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />= IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN </= span>1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 pp. 91 =E2=80=93 94 </span= > Contribuciones de la jurispru= dencia paname=C3=B1a a la pr=C3=A1ctica sobre el derecho humano de los candidatos de libre <= /span> postulaci=C3=B3n a = ser postulados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico: <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:18= pt; letter-spacing:normal">comentarios a la sentencia de 27 de noviembre de= 2014 Gianfranco Smith=EF=81=B9 = = *Autor para Correspondencia. E-= mail<a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gmail.com" target=3D"_blank" styl= e=3D"text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:ammscigliani@gm= ail.com" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">gianfranco.alberto.smith@gmail.com = </a>Recibido: 10 de julio de 2021 Aceptado: 15 de julio de 20= 21 ____________________________________________________ </span= > <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">I. INTRODUC= CI=C3=93N <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">El 27 de noviemb= re de 2014, el Pleno de la Corte Suprema de Justicia (=E2=80=98CSJ=E2=80=99) reso= lvi=C3=B3 la demanda de inconst= itucionalidad interpuesta por el Dr. Miguel Antonio Bernal en contra del = =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del ar= t=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral1, cuyo = texto establec=C3=ADa que =E2=80=9CLos candidatos principales o suplentes = = por libre postu= laci=C3=B3n, no podr=C3=A1n ser postulados por partidos pol=C3=ADticos=E2= =80=9D. Seg=C3=BAn el Dr. Bernal, el precitado p=C3=A1rrafo = deb=C3=ADa ser declarado inconstitucional por ser incompatible con ciertas = disposiciones constitucionales y convencionales, incluyendo el art=C3=ADculo 4 de l= a Constituci=C3=B3n2 y el 23(2) de la Convenci=C3=B3n Americana de Derechos Humanos (CADH)3</s= pan>. Todas estas violaciones fueron </spa= n>confirmadas por el Pleno de la CSJ, = mediante su fallo de 27 de noviembre de 20144. Este art=C3=ADculo </span= > </span= >analizar=C3=A1= el criterio de la CSJ y sus contribuciones a la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los= derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10.5pt">=EF=81=B9Licenciado en Derecho y Ciencias P= ol=C3=ADticas (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Magna Cum Laude); Especialista en <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:10pt"= > Docencia= Superior (Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, Summa Cum Laude), Maestr=C3=ADa en Estudios Dipl= om=C3=A1ticos (Oxford University, en curso). = Profesor Adjunto de Derecho Internacional en la Facultad de Relaciones Inte= rnacionales de la Universidad del Caribe; Profesor Adjunto de Filosof=C3= =ADa del Derecho, Derechos Humanos y Derecho Internacional P=C3=BAblico </s= pan> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'QMUFWG+Garamond'; font-size:10pt">en= la Universidad Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua. Relator de Panam=C3=A1 para el= m=C3=B3dulo =E2=80=9CInternational Law in Domestic Courts= =E2=80=9D de Oxofr= d University Press. Cursos y seminarios especializados en Derecho Internaci= onal en la Academia de la Haya de Derechos Internacional y la Oficina de l= as Naciones Unidas en Ginebra. 1 Ley No 11 (10 de agosto de 198= 3), Por la cual se adopta el C=C3=B3digo Electoral de la Rep=C3=BAblica de = Panam=C3=A1. 2 Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de la Rep=C3=BAb= lica, Panam=C3=A1 (11 de octubre de 1972). 3 CONVENCI=C3=93N AM= ERICANA SOBRE DERECHOS HUMANOS, San Jos=C3=A9 (22 de noviembre de 1969). </= span> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt">= 4 Sentencia de 27 de noviembre de 2014, Pleno de la Corte Suprema= de Justicia. 91 &#= xa0;<img src=3D"data= :image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQIC= AgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB9NJREFUeJztzgENgDAQALFDATYQiQCM4Wsq= yGekVdACAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAPnFMB= zZxVU91TkfY3lvd0wkAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAID/WKqjAgLOEq3BAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />II. DERECHOS POL=C3=8DTICOS DE LOS CANDI= DATOS DE LIBRE POSTULACI=C3=93N LA CONSTITUCI=C3=93N La Constituci=C3=B3n Pol=C3=ADtica de Panam=C3=A1 no contiene normas = espec=C3=ADficas que proh=C3=ADban la aprobaci=C3=B3n de leyes que restrinjan los derechos pol=C3=ADticos = de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n a ser nominados por <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = un partido pol=C3=ADtico a un puesto de = elecci=C3=B3n popular. Sin embargo, como acertadamente indic=C3=B3 la CSJ <= /span> <= /span>en su dec= isi=C3=B3n de 27 de noviembre de 2014, los art=C3=ADculos 4 y 17 de la Cons= tituci=C3=B3n permiten expandir la protecci=C3=B3n de los d= erechos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, con arreglo a las norm= as del derecho internacional de los derechos humanos. En otr= as palabras, mediante estas disposiciones, el </span= >derecho intern= acional refuerza la protecci=C3=B3n otorgada por el derecho domestico a los= candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, estableciendo l=C3= =ADmites de esa forma a la capacidad del Estado de adoptar norma que </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">lesiones los d= erechos de dichos candidatos. E= l art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n establece que =E2=80=9CLa Rep=C3= =BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 acata las normas del Derecho International=E2=80=9D. Seg=C3= =BAn la CSJ, esta disposici=C3=B3n no solo consagra la supremac=C3=ADa del = derecho internacional sobre el derecho interno, sino que adem=C3=A1s reitera la nor= ma pacta sunt servanda codificada en el art=C3=ADculo </s= pan> 26 de la Co= nvenci=C3=B3n de Viena sobre el Derecho de los Tratados5<= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">. Consecuentem= ente, el Estado <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Paname=C3=B1o d= eb=C3=ADa valorar las normas internacionales aplicables antes de aprobar el= art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral. Particularmente, deb=C3=ADa tomar en = consideraci=C3=B3n las limitaciones impuestas el art=C3=ADculo <span= class=3D"stl09" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> 23(2) de la CADH, re= lativas a los motivos para regular derechos pol=C3=ADticos. Si bien es cier= to, este art=C3=ADculo de la CA= DH permite reglamentar el ejercicio de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos exclusiv= amente por motivos de edad, nac= ionalidad residencia, idioma, instrucci=C3=B3n, capacidad civil o mental, o= condena, por juez competente, = o en proceso penal; no obstante, restringir la postulaci=C3=B3n de un candi= dato de libre <spa= n class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">postulaci=C3=B3n por un partido pol=C3=ADtico es una restricci=C3=B3n= de =C3=ADndole pol=C3=ADtico que no se ajusta a las = ;excepci= ones permitidas por el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH. En consecuencia, des= conocer dicho art=C3=ADculo de la CADH, como efectivamente ocurri=C3=B3 al aprobar = el art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, implica una violaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Const= ituci=C3=B3n. <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">Adicionalmente, a= l establecer que las garant=C3=ADas establecidas en la Constituci=C3=B3n so= n m=C3=ADnimas y no excluyentes sobre otras que incidan sobre los derechos fundamen= tales y la dignidad de la persona, el art=C3=ADculo 17 de la= Constituci=C3=B3n permite incorporar y aplicar directamente los derechos d= e la CADH en el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico interno para refo= rzar la protecci=C3=B3n de los derechos de los candidatos de libre <= span class=3D"stl17" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">postulaci=C3=B3n. Es decir, el hecho de que no exista una prohibici= =C3=B3n domestica para limitar los derechos <= /p>pol=C3=ADticos de candidatos de libre p= ostulaci=C3=B3n, no implica una ausencia de protecci=C3=B3n, ya que los </s= pan> </s= pan>derechos po= l=C3=ADticos establecidos en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH complementan= las garant=C3=ADas a favor de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n. <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> </p= >III. DERECHO POL=C3=8DTICOS DE LOS = CANDIDATOS DE LIBRE POSTULACI=C3=93N EN EL SISTEMA INTERAMERICANO Los derechos de los candidatos i= ndependientes (o de libre postulaci=C3=B3n) han sido tratados en dos casos = ante la Corte Interamericana de Derechos Humanos (Corte IDH)= . Primeramente, en el caso Yatana vs 5 CONVENCI=C3=93N DE VIENA SOBRE E= L DERECHO DE LOS TRATADOS, Viena (23 de mayo de 1969). </= span>92 <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAA= NSUhEUgAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6= fLggAAB+pJREFUeJzt1jERwlAUAMHL0MUCHbJQGEtUeEBBLNC9/MmugiuvAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAICr2KYDFvGs3tU+HcLyPtUxHQHA2= gzcf/bqVT2mQ1jer/pORwAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAwH2cFFwEA92pY9AAAAAASUVORK5CYII=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt= =3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />Nicaragua</span= >6, la Corte IDH confirm=C3=B3 que los derechos p= ol=C3=ADticos pueden regularse exclusivamente por </= span>los motivo= s establecidos en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la CADH, sin que la restricci= =C3=B3n constituya una forma de discriminaci=C3=B3n. Es deci= r que, al regular los derechos pol=C3=ADticos, el Estado no solo debe basar= se en las excepciones permitidas por el art=C3=ADculo 23(2),= sino que tambi=C3=A9n debe ser lo menos restrictivo posible y la misma debe estar dirigida a satisfacer un inter=C3=A9s p=C3=BAblico. = De lo contrario, se estar=C3=ADa infringiendo </span= >igualmente el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de = la CADH. Adicionalmente, en este mismo caso, la Corte IDH determin=C3=B3 que no exi= ste ninguna disposici=C3=B3n en la CADH que limite la postu= laci=C3=B3n de candidatos a puestos de elecci=C3=B3n a trav=C3=A9s de parti= dos pol=C3=ADticos, por lo que destac=C3=B3 la importancia de otras formas de impul= sar candidaturas para cargos de elecci=C3=B3n popular7. Reiter=C3=B3, adem=C3=A1= s, que la Carta Democr=C3=A1tica Interamericana se=C3=B1ala que para la dem= ocracia es prioritario =E2=80=9Cel fortalecimiento de los partidos pol=C3=ADticos y= de otras organizaciones pol=C3=ADticas=E2=80=9D (Art=C3=ADculo 5)8. En segundo lugar, en el caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gu= tman vs M=C3=A9xico9, la Corte IDH conside= r=C3=B3 que tanto un sistema construido exclusivamente de pa= rtidos pol=C3=ADticos, como uno que admite candidaturas independientes </sp= an> son compatib= les con la CADH. Esta decisi=C3=B3n sobre cu=C3=A1l sistema rige en el Esta= do, seg=C3=BAn la Corte IDH, queda en manos de la Constituci=C3=B3n. IV. AN=C3=81LISIS= = Como fue mencionado, la = Constituci=C3=B3n no prev=C3=A9 una norma espec=C3=ADfica que proh=C3=ADba = expresamente <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">restringir los der= echos pol=C3=ADticos de los candidatos de libre postulaci=C3=B3n, como efec= tivamente ocurri=C3=B3 tras la = aprobaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, el cual ex= clu=C3=ADa la posibilidad de que estos fueran nominados por un partido pol=C3=ADtico para un cargo de el= ecci=C3=B3n popular. Sin embargo, es importante recordar que Panam=C3=A1 es parte d= e la CADH, la cual tiene efectos vinculantes y prevalencia s= obre las dem=C3=A1s normas dom=C3=A9sticas, en virtud del art=C3=ADculo 4 d= e la Constituci=C3=B3n. Adicionalmente, el </= p>art=C3=ADculo 17 = de la Constituci=C3=B3n permite la incorporaci=C3=B3n directa de la CADH pa= ra complementar la protecci=C3=B3n domestica a favor de los candidatos independient= es, de forma que las autoridades domesticas quedan obligadas a aplicar los derechos= establecidas en la misma a favor de los candidatos = independientes. El fallo de la CSJ fue acertado al declarar qu= e el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo era inconstitucional por violar el art=C3=ADc= ulo &#= xa0;4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n.<= /span> <= /span>Esta violaci=C3=B3n ocurri=C3=B3 de manera indirecta, toda = vez que las restricciones a los candidatos de libre de post= ulaci=C3=B3n establecidas en el =C3=BAltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del Art=C3=ADculo = 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral no se ajustaban a los est=C3= =A1ndares del sistema interamericano de derechos humanos, fijados en </span= > <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">el art=C3=ADcu= lo 23(2) de la CADH. Seg=C3=BAn el razonamiento de la Corte IDH en el caso = Yatana vs Nicaragua, <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">los motivos enu= merados en dicho art=C3=ADculo 23 de la CADH son exclusivos, por lo que cua= lquier intento <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; font-size:6.5pt"= >6 CORTE INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANO= S: Caso Yatama vs. Nicaragua, sentencia de 23 de junio de 2005, Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, =C2= =B6206 (En adelante =E2=80=9CCaso Yatama vs. Nicaragua). </= span>7 Caso= Yatama vs Nicaragua, =C2=B6215. 8 CARTA DEMOCR=C3=81TICA INTER= AMERICANA, Lima (11 de septiembre de 2001). 9CORTE INTERAMERICANA DE DERECHOS HUMANOS: = Caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs. Estados Unidos <p= class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:10pt">Mexicanos, sentencia de 6 de= agosto de 2008, Excepciones Preliminares, Fondo, Reparaciones y Costas, = =C2=B6204 (En adelante Caso Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs. M=C3=A9xico) </span= > 93 de regular los derechos p= ol=C3=ADticos por motivos distintos a los permitidos en dicho art=C3=ADculo= , constituir=C3=ADa una clara violaci=C3=B3n a la CADH, y en= consecuencia al art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n. Adem=C3=A1s, como= fue men= cionado, toda regulaci=C3=B3n de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos debe hacerse d= e manera menos restrictiva posible, pues de lo contrario podr=C3=ADa incurrirse igu= almente en una violaci=C3=B3n del Art=C3=ADculo 23 de la &= #xa0;CADH. No existe evidenci= a de las motivaciones que indujeron la aprobaci=C3=B3n del =C3=BAltimo p=C3= =A1rrafo del <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, pero es muy improbable qu= e exista una justificaci=C3=B3n v=C3=A1lida y que no = ;impliqu= e una pol=C3=ADtica discriminatoria en perjuicio de los candidatos de libre= postulaci=C3=B3n. El razonamiento de la CSJ tambi=C3=A9n se alinea con caso </span= >Casta=C3=B1eda Gutman vs M=C3=A9xico, en el cual la Corte </sp= an> </sp= an>IDH determin=C3=B3 que la CADH es c= ompatible tanto con un sistema exclusivamente de partidos pol=C3=ADticos, como con = uno mixto que permite las candidaturas independientes. Efectivamente, la </= span> Constituci=C3=B3n Paname=C3=B1a reconoce un sistema mixto a tr= av=C3=A9s del art=C3=ADculo 138, el cual declara que los &= #xa0;partidos pol=C3=ADticos = expresan el pluralismo pol=C3=ADtico sin perjuicio de las postulaciones lib= res. En = consecuencia, la protecci=C3=B3n garantizada en la CADH a los candidatos af= iliados a partidos pol=C3=ADticos es igualmente extensible a los candidatos indepen= dientes. V. CONCLUSIONES <= /span>&#= xa0;El f= allo del Pleno de la CSJ de 27 de noviembre de 2014 representa una contribu= ci=C3=B3n importante a la interpretaci=C3=B3n de los derechos pol=C3=ADticos de los= candidatos independientes. Como ha sido reiterado a lo largo de este an=C3=A1lisis, el hecho de que la Co= nstituci=C3=B3n no contenga disposiciones especiales que protejan los derechos humanos de los candidatos i= ndependientes, no significa que estos queden desamparados. Mediante la aplicaci=C3=B3n del art=C3=ADculo 4= y el 17 de la Constituci=C3=B3n, la CSJ acertadamente expandi=C3=B3 la protecci= =C3=B3n que otorga el ordenamiento jur=C3=ADdico paname=C3=B1o para complem= entarlo con los derechos establecidos en la CADH, el cual i= ncluye el derecho a ser elegidos sin m=C3=A1s limitaciones que <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> las impuestas en el art=C3=ADculo 23(2) de la misma convenci=C3=B3n. La = CSJ atinadamente determin=C3=B3 que al = aprobar el =C3=BA= ltimo p=C3=A1rrafo del art=C3=ADculo 257 del C=C3=B3digo Electoral, se infr= ingi=C3=B3 el compromiso de acatar las normas del derecho internacional previsto en= el art=C3=ADculo 4 de la Constituci=C3=B3n, toda vez que el mismo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>no se ajustaba a= los est=C3=A1ndares derechos humanos del sistema interamericano. En consec= uencia, la decisi=C3=B3n de la CSJ de 27 de noviembre de 2014 es compatible con los= est=C3=A1ndares de derechos humanos del sistema interamericano. 94 IUSTITIA et PULCHRITUDO (ISSN 1607-4319) = Vol. 02, No. 02, Julio - Diciembre 2021 &= #xa0;pp. 95 <= /span>=E2=80=93 97 Revista especializada semestral <s= pan class=3D"stl12" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'; font-size:= 16pt; letter-spacing:normal"> "Iustitia et Pulchritudo" </s= pan>Instrucciones= para publicaci=C3=B3n 1. Definici=C3=B3n <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">La revista "Iustit= ia et Pulchritudo" (ISSN 1607-4319<= span class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal">), es una publicaci=C3=B3n peri=C3=B3dica semestral (dos <s= pan class=3D"stl13" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:= normal"> <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">n=C3=BAmeros regu= lares, anualmente) publicada por la Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas de la <sp= an class=3D"stl15" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal">Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua, de Panam=C3= =A1. Esta publicaci=C3=B3n peri=C3=B3dica es especializada, = centrada en las disciplinas de las ciencias jur=C3=ADdicas d= elimitadas dentro del campo de conocimiento 0056 (Derecho), de la Clasifica= ci=C3=B3n UNESCO: Nomenclatura para los Campos de las Cienci= as y las Tecnolog=C3=ADas: 5601, 5602, 563, 5604, 5605 y 5699. <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> Entre estas disciplinas se cuentan: teor=C3=ADa del derecho, filosof=C3= =ADa del derecho, filosof=C3=ADa pol=C3=ADtica, derecho &= #xa0;comparado, derecho civil= , derecho penal y procesal, derecho pol=C3=ADtico, derecho constitucional, = derecho mercantil, derecho trib= utario, derecho laboral, derecho administrativo, derecho internacional, =C3= =A9tica jur=C3=ADdica, derecho = ambiental, derecho registral, derecho del consumidor, derecho inform=C3=A1t= ico, derecho <span= class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal">comercial, derecho romano, historia del derecho, sociolog=C3=ADa del d= erecho, an=C3=A1lisis econ=C3=B3mico del = derecho, gobierno, as=C3=AD como cualqui= er disciplina o interdisciplina af=C3=ADn. As=C3=AD mismo, aquellas referid= as a &= #xa0;c= ampo de conocimiento 0059 (Ciencias Pol=C3=ADticas). = ;Iustitia e Puchritudo est=C3= =A1 abierta al personal docente e investigativo de la Universidad Cat=C3=B3= lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua y acepta gustosamente colaboraciones de investigad= ores provenientes de otros Centros de Educaci=C3=B3n Superio= r, Entidades Gubernamentales o Institutos de Investigaci=C3=B3n nacionales = o extran= jeros. 2. Pol=C3=ADtica</s= pan> = 0;Editorial. <= p class=3D"stl01" style=3D"line-height:12pt">2.1.T</sp= an>odos los art=C3=ADculos ser=C3=A1n responsabilidad exclusiva d= e los autores. Con el fin de prevenir el fraude </sp= an>o el plagio, la Universidad Cat=C3= =B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua podr=C3=A1 verificar datos sobre la </s= pan> </s= pan>trayectoria cient=C3=ADfica de los= autores y, sobre esta base, decidir sobre su publicaci=C3=B3n definitiva. = = 2.2.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:0= .05pt">Existir=C3=A1n dos tipos de art=C3=ADculos, seg=C3=BAn su origen: colabora= ciones regulares enviadas por los autores y colaboraciones solicitadas por el Editor. En el primer caso, l= os trabajos ser=C3=A1n enviados a revisi=C3=B3n por parte de evaluadores externos, = libremente seleccionados por el Editor, quienes de manera = i= mparcial y an=C3=B3nima aprobar=C3=A1n, recomendar=C3=A1n cambios o rechaza= r=C3=A1n la publicaci=C3=B3n del trabajo = 95= <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEU= gAAAnAAAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAA= B/pJREFUeJzt2LEJAkEARNFZFMHU5Eqx9SvJyFQQ5K4KGdh9r4If/wQAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAACWNNoBML/= jkeTWrqDinYxvOwKYz7UdAAt4JtnaEVTsSV7tCGA+Dhz83XFPcmlXUPFJxq8dAQAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAKzgBO+yB/X4WUtfAAAAAElFTkSuQmCC" width=3D"624" height= =3D"808" alt=3D"" style=3D"position:absolute" />remitido. En el segundo caso, ser= =C3=A1 prerrogativa final del Editor publicar o no la colaboraci=C3=B3n </s= pan> </s= pan>solicitada. 2.3.Los trabajos a ser considerados para publicaci=C3=B3n deber=C3=A1n ser a= bsolutamente in=C3=A9ditos. Los mismos = deber=C3=A1n ser = enviados v=C3=ADa correo ordinario o electr=C3=B3nico, a la siguiente direc= ci=C3=B3n: Director Editor </p= >Revista Iustitia et Pulchritudo <= span class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> <= /p>Facultad de Derecho y Ciencias Pol=C3= =ADticas Universidad Cat=C3=B3l= ica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua (USMA) Apartado 0819-8300 Panam=C3=A1, Rep=C3=BAblica de Panam=C3=A1 <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal"> O por email a</span= ><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"= text-decoration:none">: </a><a href=3D"mailto:revista.iustitia@usm= a.ac.pa" target=3D"_blank" style=3D"text-decoration:none">revista.iustitia@usma.ac.pa <= /span></a>2.4.= Los art=C3=ADculos enviados ser=C3=A1n publicad= os Ad Honorem y la revista retribuir=C3=A1 su aporte otorgando <span= class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:nor= mal"> gratuitamente a cada= colaborador un n=C3=BAmero determinado de copias de la publicaci=C3=B3n. <= /span> <= /span>2.5.<spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-0= .05pt">La Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa La Antigua conservar=C3=A1 l= os derechos de autor sobre el material impreso en la edici=C3=B3n de la que se tr= ate. El autor mantendr=C3=A1 sus derechos de autor sobre ediciones <= span class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing= :normal"> <sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">sucesivas. </spa= n> </spa= n>2.6.No= se devolver=C3=A1n colaboraciones no solicitadas por el Editor. <sp= an class=3D"stl16" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:n= ormal"> <span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'SALCCW+Garamond Bold'">3. Especifica= ciones T=C3=A9cnicas para las Colaboraciones. </s= pan> 3.1</s= pan>.La revista publicar=C3=A1= varios tipos de colaboraciones: 3.1.1.Ponencias o res=C3=BAmenes de ponencias pres= entadas en congresos especializados o profesionales. 3.1.2.T= rabajos de investigaci=C3=B3n jur=C3=ADdica (bibliogr=C3=A1fica, hermen=C3= =A9utica o socio-jur=C3=ADdica). 3.1.3.Jurisprudencia. </spa= n>3.1.4.An=C3=A1lisis de Jurisprudenci= a. &#x= a0;3.1.5.Art=C3=ADculos de Opin= i=C3=B3n (fundamentada con referencias) sobre asuntos de naturaleza = = jur=C3=ADdica. 3.1.6.Cartas al Editor. = <s= pan class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">3.2<span= class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:1.3= 5pt">.Los cuatro primeros tipos de colab= oraciones arriba detalladas (3.1.1, 3.1.2, 3.1.3 y 3.1.4) se redactar=C3=A1n dirigi= das a un p=C3=BAblico especializado, su extensi=C3=B3n m=C3=A1xima ordinari= a ser=C3=A1 de treinta (30) cuartillas, escritas a espacio sencillo, tipos Garamond= o Times New Roman, doce (12) puntos. 96 </sp= an> <img src=3D"data:image/png;base64,iVBORw0KGgoAAAANSUhEUgAAAnA= AAAMoCAYAAABPud2NAAAABHNCSVQICAgIfAhkiAAAAAlwSFlzAAAOxAAADsQBD6fLggAAB+lJRE= FUeJztzrEJgEAUBbB3YGPlCC7juA5m5QA2uoIcyD8wmSAJAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAwEutOkCve06yVC9gMFf= SzuoEwNem6gDd1iRbdQIGcyTZqxMAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA= AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAC/8gD46Q= T9Q5SGiwAAAABJRU5ErkJggg=3D=3D" width=3D"624" height=3D"808" alt=3D"" style= =3D"position:absolute" />3.3.Los trabajos de los do= s =C3=BAltimos tipos (3.1.5 y 3.1.6) se redactar=C3=A1n dirigidas a un p=C3= =BAblico general, su extensi=C3= =B3n m=C3=A1xima ordinaria ser=C3=A1 de cinco (5) cuartillas, escritas a es= pacio sencillo, tipos Garamond = o Times New Roman, doce (12) puntos. 3.4.Todos los trabajos deber=C3=A1n tener= un t=C3=ADtulo claramente identificado. Adjunto al t=C3=ADtulo ir=C3=A1n e= l nombre del o los autores, as=C3=AD como su filiaci=C3=B3n institucional y su dire= cci=C3=B3n postal y electr=C3=B3nica. El primer </sp= an>autor listad= o ser=C3=A1 considerado como Autor Principal y a =C3=A9l ser=C3=A1 dirigida= cualquier comunicaci=C3=B3n referente al trabajo. Toda esta= informaci=C3=B3n deber=C3=A1 concentrarse en una misma p=C3=A1gina, exclus= iva para estos fines. As=C3=AD mismo, los cuatro primeros ti= pos de colaboraciones arriba detalladas (3.1.1, </sp= an>3.1.2, 3.1.3 y 3.1.4) deber=C3=A1n = contar con, al menos, cinco referencias bibliogr=C3=A1ficas, en cada caso. = = 3.5.<sp= an class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:-= 0.05pt">Para todos los tipos de escrito: =E2=88=92 Deber=C3=A1n usarse las unidades= del Sistema Internacional de medidas, obligatoriamente. =E2=88=92 </sp= an>Las referencias bibliogr=C3=A1ficas deber=C3=A1n listarse seg= =C3=BAn las normas editoriales de la Revista Chilena = ;de Derecho de la Pontificia Un= iversidad Cat=C3=B3lica de Chile. Puede encontrar gu=C3=ADa= s en <a href=3D"http://ojs.uc.cl/index.php/Rchd/Norm2" target=3D"_blan= k" style=3D"text-decoration:none">http://ojs.uc.cl/index.php/Rchd/Norm2 <= /span> </a>= =E2=88=92 Se pide a cada autor principal que provea una tra= ducci=C3=B3n, al idioma ingl=C3=A9s, del resumen ejecutivo (abstract) de su escrito. En caso de no poder p= roveerse, el Director-Editor proceder=C3=A1 a efectuar la traducci=C3=B3n de dicho resumen. 3.6. Los textos enviados para ser considerado= s para publicaci=C3=B3n, deber=C3=A1n ser remitidos en forma de <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'"> = documentos editab= les, escritos usando el procesador de palabra Microsoft Word. 4. Advertencia / Disclaimer <spa= n class=3D"stl14" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'; letter-spacing:no= rmal">Las opiniones expresadas en art=C3=ADculos que aparezcan impresos den= tro de esta publicaci=C3=B3n son de responsabilidad exclusiv= a de los autores correspondientes. No reflejan las opiniones o puntos de vi= sta de l= a comunidad de la USMA (la Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica Santa Mar=C3=ADa la An= tigua) ni de sus directivos, personal administrativo, docente o educando. Las denom= inaciones empleadas en esta publicaci=C3=B3n y la </= span>presentaci= =C3=B3n de los datos que contengan los trabajos que aqu=C3=AD se publiquen,= no implican la expresi=C3=B3n de juicio alguno por parte de la USMA ni de los mi= embros de su comunidad acad=C3=A9mica sobre la condici=C3=B3n de cualquier persona natural o jur=C3=ADdica= y la USMA se exime completamente de cualquier responsabilidad legal derivada. The views expressed in articles tha= t appear in print within this publication are of the sole responsibility </= span> of the respective authors. They do not reflect the opinions or= views of the community of USMA (Universidad Cat=C3=B3lica = Santa Mar=C3=ADa la Antigua) nor from its directors, staff, faculty or stud= ent body. The designations employed and the presentation of data contained within w= ritten works published here do = not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the USMA = or members of <spa= n class=3D"stl22" style=3D"font-family:'MMURBI+Garamond'">its academic comm= unity on the status of any natural or legal person, therefore USMA complete= ly &#x= a0;rejects and disclaims any de= rived legal liability. 97 </sp= an></div></div></body></html> --=boundary.Aspose.Words=-- Content-Disposition: inline; filename="times.ttf" Content-Type: application/octet-stream Content-Transfer-Encoding: base64 Content-Location: times.ttf AAEAAAANAIAAAwBQT1MvMhdwWHYAAADcAAAAYGNtYXD8VpvqAAABPAAABARjdnQgHWQC1wAABUAA ABCEZnBnbW1ZG1MAABXEAAAKWWdseWZDf0RrAAAgIAAA21ZoZWFkiZnDvgAA+3gAAAA2aGhlYRNN CJgAAPuwAAAAJGhtdHgQHh2UAAD71AAAAgBsb2NhAD+N2gAA/dQAAAIEbWF4cAeTCLUAAP/YAAAA IG5hbWXKudJCAAD/+AAAKe9wb3N0/yQAZAABKegAAAAgcHJlcLMykpEAASoIAAAPkwAEAzUBkAAF 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